[! 


*^  OF  TMF 

UNIVERSIT'V 

OF 


THE  EMPEROR  OI"  CHINA 


The 

Awakening  of  China 

By 

W.  A.  P.  MARTIN,  D.D.,  LL.D 

H 
Formerly   President   of    the   Chinese   Imperial   University 

Author  of  "A  Cycle  of  Cathay,  "The  Siege 
in  Peking,"    "The   Lore  of  Cathay,"   etc. 

Illustrated  from  photographs 


OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


New  York 
Doubleday,  Page  &  Company 
1907 


.'J  ■ 


Copyright,  1907.  bt  Doublbday,  Page  &  Company 
Published,  May,  1907 


All  Rights  Reserved 

Including  that  of  Translation  into  Foreign  Languages 

Including  THB  Scandinavian 


PREFACE 

China  is  the  theatre  of  the  greatest  movement  now 
taking  place  on  the  face  of  the  globe.  In  comparison 
with  it,  the  agitation  in  Russia  shrinks  to  insignificance; 
for  it  is  not  political,  but  social.  Its  object  is  not  a 
changed  dynasty,  nor  a  revolution  in  the  form  of  gov- 
ernment; but,  with  higher  aim  and  deeper  motive,  it 
promises  nothing  short  of  the  complete  renovation  of 
the  oldest,  most  populous,  and  most  conservative  of 
empires.  Is  there  a  people  in  either  hemisphere  that 
can  afford  to  look  on  with  indifference? 

When,  some  thirty  years  ago,  Japan  adopted  the 
outward  forms  of  Western  civilisation,  her  action  was 
regarded  by  many  as  a  stage  trick — a  sort  of  travesty 
employed  for  a  temporary  purpose.  But  what  do  they 
think  now,  when  they  see  cabinets  and  chambers  of 
commerce  compelled  to  reckon  with  the  British  of  the 
North  Pacific?  The  awakening  of  Japan's  huge  neigh- 
bour promises  to  yield  results  equally  startling  and  on 
a  vastly  extended  scale. 

Political  agitation,  whether  periodic  like  the  tides 
or  unforeseen  like  the  hurricane,  is  in  general  superficial 
and  temporary;  but  the  social  movement  in  China  has 
its  origin  in  subterranean  forces  such  as  raise  continents 
from  the  bosom  of  the  deep.  To  explain  those  forces 
is  the  object  of  the  present  work. 

It  is  the  fascination  of  this  grand  spectacle  that  has 


295889 


vi  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

brought  me  back  to  China,  after  a  short  visit  to  my 
native  land — and  to  this  capital,  after  a  sojourn  of 
some  years  in  the  central  provinces.  Had  the  people 
continued  to  be  as  inert  and  immobile  as  they  appeared 
to  be  half  a  century  ago,  I  might  have  been  tempted  to 
despair  of  their  future.  But  when  I  see  them,  as  they 
are  to-day,  united  in  a  firm  resolve  to  break  with  the 
past,  and  to  seek  new  life  by  adopting  the  essentials  of 
Western  civilisation,  I  feel  that  my  hopes  as  to  their 
future  are  more  than  half  realised;  and  I  rejoice  to 
help  their  cause  with  voice  and  pen. 

Their  patriotism  may  indeed  be  tinged  with  hos- 
tility to  foreigners;  but  will  it  not  gain  in  breadth  with 
growing  intelligence,  and  will  they  not  come  to  per- 
ceive that  their  interests  are  inseparable  from  those 
of  the  great  family  into  which  they  are  seeking 
admission? 

Every  day  adds  its  testimony  to  the  depth  and 
genuineness  of  the  movement  in  the  direction  of  reform. 
Yesterday  the  autumn  manoeuvres  of  the  grand  army 
came  to  a  close.  They  have  shown  that  by  the  aid  of 
her  railways  China  is  able  to  assemble  a  body  of  trained 
troops  numbering  100,000  men.  Not  content  with  this 
formidable  land  force,  the  Government  has  ordered  the 
construction  of  the  nucleus  of  a  navy,  to  consist  of 
eight  armoured  cruisers  and  two  battleships.  Five 
of  these  and  three  naval  stations  are  to  be  equipped  with 
the  wireless  telegraph. 

Not  less  significant  than  this  rehabilitation  of  army 
and  navy  is  the  fact  that  a  few  days  ago  a  number  of 
students,  who  had  completed  their  studies  at  foreign 
universities,   were  admitted  to  the  third  degree   (or 


PREFACE  vii 

D.  C.  L.)  in  the  scale  of  literary  honours,  which  means 
appointment  to  some  important  post  in  the  active 
mandarinate.  If  the  booming  of  cannon  at  the  grand 
review  proclaimed  that  the  age  of  bows  and  arrows  is 
past,  does  not  this  other  fact  announce  that,  in  the 
field' of  education,  rhyming  and  caligraphy  have  given 
place  to  science  and  languages  ?  Henceforth  thousands 
of  ambitious  youth  will  flock  to  the  universities  of 
Japan,  and  growing  multitudes  will  seek  knowledge  at 
its  fountain-head  beyond  the  seas. 

Still  more  surprising  are  the  steps  taken  toward  the 
intellectual  emancipation  of  woman  in  China.  One 
of  the  leading  ministers  of  education  assured  me  the 
other  day  that  he  was  pushing  the  establishment  of 
schools  for  girls.  The  shaded  hemisphere  of  Chinese 
life  will  thus  be  brought  into  the  sunshine,  and  in  years 
to  come  the  education  of  Chinese  youth  will  begin  at  the 

mother's  knee. 

The  daily  deliberations  of  the  Council  of  State  prove 
that  the  reform  proposals  of  the  High  Commission  are 
not  to  be  consigned  to  the  limbo  of  abortions.  Tuan 
Fang,  one  of  the  leaders,  has  just  been  appointed  to  the 
viceroyalty  of  Nanking,  with  carte  blanche  to  carry  out 
his  progressive  ideas;  and  the  metropolitan  viceroy, 
Yuan,  on  taking  leave  of  the  Empress  Dowager  before 
proceeding  to  the  manoeuvres,  besought  her  not  to 
listen  to  reactionary  counsels  such  as  those  which  had 
produced  the  disasters  of  1900. 

In  view  of  these  facts,  what  wonder  that  Chinese 
newspapers  are  discussing  the  question  of  a  national 
rehgion?  The  fires  of  the  old  altars  are  well-nigh  ex- 
tinct;   and,  among  those  who  have  come  forward  to 


viii  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

advocate  the  adoption  of  Christianity  as  the  only  faith 

that  meets  the  wants  of  an  enhghtened  people,  one  of 

the  most  prominent  is  a  priest  of  Buddha. 

May  we  not  look  forward  with  confidence  to  a  time 

when   China  shall  be  foimd   in  the  brotherhood   of 

Christian  nations? 

W.  A.  P.  M. 

Peking,  October  JO,  /po^. 


OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


INTRODUCTION 

How  varied  are  the  geological  formations  of  differ- 
ent countries,  and  what  countless  ages  do  they  rep- 
resent! Scarcely  less  diversified  are  the  human  beings 
that  occupy  the  surface  of  the  globe,  and  not  much 
shorter  the  period  of  their  evolution.  To  trace  the 
stages  of  their  growth  and  decay,  to  explain  the  vicis- 
situdes through  which  they  have  passed,  is  the  office 
of  a  philosophic  historian. 

If  the  life  history  of  a  silkworm,  whose  threefold  ex- 
istence is  rounded  off  in  a  few  months,  is  replete  with 
interest,  how  much  more  interesting  is  that  of  societies 
of  men  emerging  from  barbarism  and  expanding 
through  thousands  of  years.  Next  in  interest  to  the 
history  of  our  own  branch  of  the  human  family  is  that 
of  the  yellow  race  confronting  us  on  the  opposite  shore 
of  the  Pacific;  even  more  fascinating,  it  may  be,  owing 
to  the  strangeness  of  manners  and  environment,  as  well 
as  from  the  contrast  or  coincidence  of  experience  and 
sentiment.  So  different  from  ours  (the  author  writes 
as  an  American)  are  many  phases  of  their  social  life 
that  one  is  tempted  to  suspect  that  the  same  law,  which 
placed  their  feet  opp'osite  to  ours,  of  necessity  turned 
their  heads  the  other  way. 

To  pursue  this  study  is  not  to  delve  in  a  necropolis 
like  Nineveh  or  Babylon;  for  China  is  not,  like  western 
Asia,  the  grave  of  dead  empires,  but  the  home  of  a  people 

ix 


X  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

endowed  with  inexhaustible  vitality.  Her  present  great- 
ness and  her  future  prospects  alike  challenge  admiration. 

If  the  inhabitants  of  other  worlds  could  look  down  on 
us,  as  we  look  up  at  the  moon,  there  are  only  five  empires 
on  the  globe  of  sufHcient  extent  to  make  a  figure  on  their 
map:  one  of  these  is  China.  With  more  than  three  times 
the  population  of  Russia,  and  an  almost  equal  area,  in 
natural  advantages  she  is  without  a  rival,  if  one 
excepts  the  United  States.  Imagination  revels  in  pictur- 
ing her  future,  when  she  shall  have  adopted  Christian 
civilisation,  and  when  steam  and  electricity  shall  have 
knit  together  all  the  members  of  her  gigantic  frame. 

It  was  by  the  absorption  of  small  states  that  the 
Chinese  people  grew  to  greatness.  The  present  work 
will  trace  their  history  as  they  emerge,  like  a  rivulet, 
from  the  highlands  of  central  Asia  and,  increasing  in 
volume,  flow,  like  a  stately  river,  toward  the  eastern 
ocean.  Revolutions  many  and  startling  are  to  be  re- 
corded: some,  like  that  in  the  epoch  of  the  Great  Wall, 
which  stamped  the  impress  of  unity  upon  the  entire 
people;  others,  like  the  Manchu  conquest  of  1644,  by 
which,  in  whole  or  in  part,  they  were  brought  under  the 
sway  of  a  foreign  dynasty.  Finally,  contemporary  history 
will  be  treated  at  some  length ,  as  its  importance  demands ; 
and  the  transformation  now  going  on  in  the  Empire  will 
be  faithfully  depicted  in  its  relations  to  Western  in- 
fluences in  the  fields  of  religion,  commerce  and  arms. 

As  no  people  can  be  understood  or  properly  studied 
apart  from  their  environment,  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the 
country  is  given. 


CONTENTS 


PACK 

Preface     v 

Introduction ix 


PART  I 

THE  EMPIRE  IN  OUTLINE 

I.     China  Proper 3 

II.     A  Journey  Through  the  Provinces — Kwangtung  and 

Kwangsi     .......  7 

III.  Fukien 14 

IV.  Chdhkiang 17 

V.     Kiangsu 25 

VI.     Shantung 30 

VII.     Chihli 33 

VIII.     Honan 41 

IX.     The    River    Provinces — Hupeh,    Hunan,    Anhwei, 

Kiangsi 45 

X.     Provinces  of  the  Upper  Yang-tse — Szechuen,  Kwei- 

chau,  Yunnan 50 

XI.     Northwestern  Provinces — Shansi,  Shensi,  Kansuh     .  54 

XII.     Outlying  Territories — Manchuria,  Mongolia,  Tur- 
kestan, Tibet 56 

xi 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 


PART  II 

HISTORY  IN  OUTLINE,  FROM  THE  EARLIEST  TIMES 
TO  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 


XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 

XIX. 

XX. 

XXI. 

XXII. 

XXIII. 

XXIV. 

XXV. 

XXVI. 


rASK 


Origin  of  the  Chinese     .         .         .         .         .         .  67 

The  Mythical  Period 70 

The  Three  Dynasties 78 

House  of  Chou 83 

The  Sages  of  China 89 

The  Warring  States 96 

House  of  Ts'in      .......  100 

House  of  Han 105 

The  Three  Kingdoms 112 

The  Tang  Dynasty 119 

The  Sung  Dynasty 126 

The  Yuen  Dynasty 131 

The  Ming  Dynasty 135 

The  Ta-Ts'ing  Dynasty 140 


PART   III 

CHINA  IN  TRANSFORMATION 

XXVII.     The  Opening  of  China,  a  Drama  in  Five  Acts — 

God  in  History — Prologue  .         .         .  149 

Act  I — The  Opium  War 151 

(Note  on  the  Tai-ping  Rebellion) 

Act  2— The  '«  Arrow  "  War     ....  162 

Act  3 — War  with  France 169 

Act  4 — War  with  Japan 170 

Act  5 — The  Boxer  War 172 

zii 


CONTENTS 

XXVIII.     The  Russo-Japanese  War i8i 

XXIX.     Reform  in  China ,  196 

XXX.     Viceroy  Chang 219 

XXXI.     Anti-foreign  Agitation 244 

XXII.     The  Manchus,  the  Normans  of  China  .         .  267 


APPENDIX 

I.     The    Agency   of   Missionaries  in    the    Diffusion   of 

Secular  Knowledge  in  China      ....  281 

II.     Unmentioned  Reforms    ......  292 

III.     A  New  Opium  War 303 

Index 309 


xm 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

The  Emperor  of  China Frontispiece 

FACING  PAGE 

Parade  Ground,  Hong  Kong 7 

Amoy,  Province  of  Fukien         10 

View  of  Amoy,  Looking  toward  River 17 

The  Sacred  Island  of  Putu         19 

Scene  in  the  Island  of  Putu 21 

Priests  of  the  Island  of  Putu 23 

Suchow :  One  of  the  Water  Gates 26 

In  Suchow  City 26 

Suchow:  A  Waterway  within  the  Walls 28 

One  of  the  Gates  of  Nanking 30 

Shanghai:  Mouth  of  Suchow  Creek 32 

Shanghai :  River  View  Up-stream 32 

Memorial  of  the  German  Occupation  of  Kiautschou  (Kiao- 

Chao) 35 

German    Government    Building 35 

Tomb  of  Dr.  Ernest  Faber  in  Tsing-Tau 37 

Lake  at  Tsinan 39 

Tomb  of  Confucius  at  Kewfow 42 

Temple    of    Confucius 44 

Chefoo :  City  and  Harbour 46 

Chefoo  Hill 46 

Rear  View  of  the  Summer  Palace,  Peking 51 

Entrance  to  Palace,   Peking 53 

Temple   of  Heaven,    Peking 55 

Peking:  Gate  of  University,  Imperial  Hill  in  the  Background  58 

Peking :  Imperial  Lecture  room  in  the  Old  University  Building  60 

XV 


xvi  THE  AWAKENING   OF  CHINA 

FACING  PAGE 

Peking:   Old   Examination  Hall,  Stalls  for   Students,   and 

Watch-tower 62 

Old  University,  Peking 62 

Peking:  Sacred  Tablet,  Temple  of  Confucius     ....  69 

Hankow:  Mouth  of  the  Han 71 

Class  in  Girls'  School,  Episcopal  Mission,  Wuchang     .     .  74 

Freshman  Class,  Boone  School,  Wuchang     .     .     .     .     .  76 

Boone  School  Picnic,  Wuchang 76 

Pagoda  at  Wuchang 83 

The  Little  Orphan,  Province  of  Kiangsi 85 

Gorges  of  the  Yang-tse  Kiang 87 

Tibetan  Tope,  Palace  Groimds,  Peking     .         ....  90 

Monument  of  Ta-yu 92 

Snapshot  of  Dr.  Martin  and  Some  of  His  Professors     ...  94 

The  Great  Wall  of  China 94 

Ming  Tombs 135 

Watch-tower  at  Yungloh's  Tomb 135 

Arch  of  Five  Spears,  Tombs  of  the  Ming  Dynasty,  Peking    .  138 
Palatine  Hill,  Peking,  Scene  of  the  Suicide  of  the  Last  of  the 

Mings 165 

Palace  where  the  Emperor  was  Imprisoned 172 

The  French  Cathedral,  Peking 177 

Bishop  Favier 192 

Peking:  Indian  Troops  at  Palace  Gate  After  the  Siege     .     .  209 

Viceroy  Chang 224 

Tuan  Fang,  Viceroy  of  Nanking 243 

The  Empress  of  China 254 

The  Emperor's  Second  Wife 254 

Two  Portraits  of  the  Empress  Dowager 254 

The  Court  in  Masquerade 275 

The  Presbyterian  Mission  Press  Works,  Shanghai     .     .     .  279 

The  Lockhart  Union  Medical  College,  Peking     .     .     .     .  281 

The  Methodist  Episcopal  University,  Peking     .     .     .     .  282 

American  Board  College  at  Tungchow,  near  Peking     .     .  286 


PART  I 
THE  EMPIRE  IN  OUTLINE 


rif^^ 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

CHAPTER  I 

CHINA  PROPER 

Five  Grand  Divisions— Climate — Area  and  Population 
— The  Eighteen  Provinces 

THE  empire  consists  of  five  grand  divisions:  China 
Proper,  Manchuria,  Mongolia,  Turkestan,  and 
Tibet.  In  treating  of  this  huge  conglomerate  it  will 
be  most  convenient  to  begin  with  the  portion  that 
gives  name  and  character  to  the  whole. 

Of  China  Proper  it  may  be  affirmed  that  the  sun 
shines  nowhere  on  an  equal  area  which  combines  so 
many  of  the  conditions  requisite  for  the  support  of  an 
opulent  and  prosperous  people.  Lying  between  i8° 
and  49°  north  latitude,  her  climate  is  alike  exempt  from 
the  fierce  heat  of  the  torrid  zone  and  the  killing  cold  of 
the  frigid  regions.  There  is  not  one  of  her  provinces 
in  which  wheat,  rice,  and  cotton,  the  three  staples  of 
food  and  clothing,  may  not  be  cultivated  with  more  or 
less  success;  but  in  the  southern  half  wheat  gives  place 
to  rice,  while  in  the  north  cotton  yields  to  silk  and 
hemp.  In  the  south  cotton  is  king  and  rice  is  queen 
of  the  fields. 

Traversed  in  every  direction  by  mountain  ranges  of 
moderate   elevation    whose    sides    are    cultivated    in 

3 


4,  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

terraces  to  such  a  height  as  to  present  the  appearance 
of  hanging  gardens,  China  possesses  fertile  valleys  in 
fair  proportion,  together  with  vast  plains  that  compare 
in  extent  with  those  of  our  American  prairie  states. 
Furrowed  by  great  rivers  whose  innumerable  affluents 
supply  means  of  irrigation  and  transport,  her  barren 
tracts  are  few  and  small. 

A  coast-line  of  three  thousand  miles  indented  with 
gulfs,  bays,  and  inlets  affords  countless  harbours  for 
shipping,  so  that  few  countries  can  compare  with  her 
in  facilities  for  ocean  commerce. 

As  to  her  boundaries,  on  the  east  six  of  her  eighteen 
provinces  bathe  their  feet  in  the  waters  of  the  Pacific ; 
on  the  south  she  clasps  hands  with  Indo-China  and 
with  British  Burma;  and  on  the  west  the  foothills  of 
the  Himalayas  form  a  bulwark  more  secure  than  the 
wall  that  marks  her  boundary  on  the  north.  Greatest 
of  the  works  of  man,  the  Great  Wall  serves  at  present 
no  other  purpose  than  that  of  a  mere  geographical 
expression.  Built  to  protect  the  fertile  fields  of  the 
"Flowery  Land"  from  the  incursions  of  northern 
nomads,  it  may  have  been  useful  for  some  generations ; 
but  it  can  hardly  be  pronounced  an  unqualified  success, 
since  China  in  whole  or  in  part  has  passed  more  than 
half  of  the  twenty-two  subsequent  centuries  under  the 
domination  of  Tartars. 

With  an  area  of  about  1,500,000  square  miles, 
or  one-half  that  of  Europe,  China  has  a  busy 
population  of  about  four  hundred  millions;  yet,  so 
far  from  being  exhausted,  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  with  improved  methods  in  agriculture,  manu- 
factures, mining,  and  transportation,  she  might  very 


CHINA  PROPER  S 

easily  sustain  double  the  present  number  of  her  thrifty 
children. 

Within  this  favoured  domain  the  products  of  nature 
and  of  human  industry  vie  with  each  other  in  extent 
and  variety.  A  bare  enumeration  would  read  like  a 
page  of  a  gazetteer  and  possibly  make  no  more  im- 
pression than  a  column  of  figures.  To  form  an  esti- 
mate of  the  marvellous  fecundity  of  the  country  and 
to  realise  its  picturesqueness,  one  ought  to  visit  the 
provinces  in  succession  and  spend  a  year  in  the  ex- 
ploration of  each.  If  one  is  precluded  from  such 
leisurely  observation,  undoubtedly  the  next  best  thing 
is  to  see  them  through  the  eyes  of  those  who  have 
travelled  in  and  have  made  a  special  study  of  those 
regions. 

To  more  than  half  of  the  provinces  I  can  offer  myself 
as  a  guide.  I  spent  ten  years  at  Ningpo,  and  one  year 
at  Shanghai,  both  on  the  southern  seacoast.  At  the 
northern  capital  I  spent  forty  years;  and  I  have 
recently  passed  three  years  at  Wuchang  on  the  banks  of 
the  Yang-tse  Kiang,  a  special  coign  of  vantage  for  the 
study  of  central  China.  While  residing  in  the  above- 
mentioned  foci  it  was  my  privilege  to  visit  six  other 
provinces  (some  of  them  more  than  once) ,  thus  gaining 
a  personal  acquaintance  with  ten  out  of  the  eighteen  and 
being  enabled  to  gather  valuable  information  at  first 
hand. 

A  glance  at  the  subjoined  table  (from  the  report  of 
the  China  Inland  Mission  for  1905)  will  exhibit  the 
magnitude  of  the  field  of  investigation  before  us.  The 
average  province  corresponds  in  extent  to  the  average 
state  of  the  American  Union;  and  the  whole  exceeds 


6  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

that  portion  of    the    United   States    which    lies   east 
of  the  Mississippi. 

CHINA   PROPER 


PROVINCES 


Kwangtung  (Canton) 

Kwangsi 

Fukien 

Ch^hkiang 

Kiangsu 

Shantung  

Chihli 

Shansi 

Shensi 

Kansuh 

Honan 

Hupeh 

Hunan 

Nganhwei  (Anhwei) . . 

Yunnan 

Szechuen 

Kiangsi 

Kweichau 

Totals 


AREA 
SQ.  MILES 


99,970 
77,200 
46,320 
36,670 
38,600 

55.970 
115,800 

81,830 

75.270 

125,450 
67,940 

71,410 

83.380 

54,810 

146,680 

218,480 

69,480 

67,160 


1,532,420 


POPULA- 
TION 


31,865,000 
5,142,000 
22,876,000 
11,580,000 
13,980,000 
38,248,000 
20,937,000 
12,200,000 
8,450,000 
10,385,000 
35,316,000 
35,280,000 
22,170,000 
23,670,000 
12,325,000 
68,725,000 
26,532,000 
7,650,000 


407.331.000 


OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


o 
z 

o 

o 
z 

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CHAPTER  II 

A    JOURNEY    THROUGH    THE    PROVINCES 
— KWANGTUNG  AND  KWANGSI 

Hong  Kong — A  Trip  to  Canton — Macao — Scenes  on 
Pearl  River — Canton  Christian  College — Passion 
for  Gambling — A  Typical  City — A  Chief  Source 
of  Emigration 

LET  us  take  an  imaginary  journey  through  the  prov- 
inces and  begin  at  Hong  Kong,  where,  in  1850, 
I  began  my  actual  experience  of  hfe  in  China. 

From  the  deck  of  the  good  ship  Lantao,  which  had 
brought  me  from  Boston  around  the  Cape  in  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty-four  days,  I  gazed  with  admiration  on 
the  Gibraltar  of  the  Orient.  Before  me  was  a  land- 
locked harbour  in  which  all  the  navies  of  the  world 
might  ride  in  safety.  Around  me  rose  a  noble  chain 
of  hills,  their  slopes  adorned  with  fine  residences,  their 
valleys  a  chessboard  of  busy  streets,  with  here  and 
there  a  British  battery  perched  on  a  commanding 
rock. 

Under  Chinese  rule  Hong  Kong  had  been  an  insignifi- 
cant fishing  village,  in  fact  a  nest  of  pirates.  In  1841 
the  island  was  ceded  by  China  to  Great  Britain,  and 
the  cession  was  confirmed  by  the  treaty  of  Nanking  in 
August,  1842.  The  transformation  effected  in  less  than 
a  decade  had  been  magical;  yet  that  was  only  the  bloom 

7 


8  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

of  babyhood,  compared  with  the  rich  maturity  of  the 
present  day. 

A  daily  steamer  then  stifficed  for  its  trade  with  Can- 
ton; a  weekly  packet  connected  it  with  Shanghai; 
and  the  bulk  of  its  merchandise  was  still  carried  in 
sailing  ships  or  Chinese  junks.  How  astounding  the 
progress  that  has  marked  the  last  half-century!  The 
streets  that  meandered,  as  it  were,  among  the  valleys, 
or  fringed  the  water's  edge,  now  girdle  the  hills  like 
rows  of  seats  in  a  huge  amphitheatre;  a  railway  lifts 
the  passenger  to  the  mountain  top;  and  other  railways 
whirl  him  from  hill  to  hill  along  the  dizzy  height. 
Trade,  too,  has  multiplied  twenty  fold.  In  a  com- 
mercial report  for  the  year  ending  June,  1905,  it  is 
stated  that  in  amount  of  tonnage  Hong  Kong  has  be- 
come the  banner  port  of  the  world. 

Though  politically  Hong  Kong  is  not  China,  more 
than  212,000  of  its  busy  population  (about  221,000) 
are  Chinese;  and  it  is  preeminently  the  gate  of 
China.  By  a  wise  and  liberal  policy  the  British 
Government  has  made  it  the  chief  emporium  of  the 
Eastern  seas. 

We  now  take  a  trip  to  Canton  and  cross  a  bay 
studded  with  islands.  These  are  clothed  with  copious 
verdure,  but,  like  all  others  on  the  China  coast,  lack 
the  crowning  beauty  of  trees.  In  passing  we  get  a 
glimpse  of  Macao,  a  pretty  town  under  the  flag  of  the 
Portuguese,  the  pioneers  of  Eastern  trade.  The  oldest 
foreign  settlement  in  China,  it  dates  from  1544 — not 
quite  a  half -century  after  the  discovery  of  the  route  to 
India,  an  achievement  whose  fourth  centenary  was 
celebrated  in  1898.     If  it  could  be  ascertained  on  what 


KWANGTUNG  AND  KWANGSI  9 

day  some  adventurous  argonaut  pushed  the  quest  of 
the  Golden  Fleece  to  Farther  India,  as  China  was  then 
designated,  that  exploit  might  with  equal  appropriate- 
ness be  commemorated  also. 

The  city  of  Macao  stands  a  monument  of  Lusitanian 
enterprise.  Beautifully  situated  on  a  projecting  spur 
of  an  island,  it  is  a  favourite  summer  resort  of  foreign 
residents  in  the  metropolis.  It  has  a  population  of 
about  70,000,  mostly  Chinese,  and  contains  two  tombs 
that  make  it  sacred  in  my  eyes;  namely,  that  of 
Camoens,  author  of  "TheLusiad"  and  poet  of  Gama's 
voyage,  and  that  of  Robert  Morrison,  the  pioneer  of 
Protestant  missions,  the  centennial  of  whose  arrival 
will  next  year  have  a  brilliant  celebration. 

Entering  the  Pearl  River,  a  fine  stream  500  miles  in 
length,  whose  affluents  spread  like  a  fan  over  two 
provinces,  we  come  to  the  viceregal  capital,  as  Canton 
deserves  to  be  called,  though  the  viceroy  actually 
resides  in  another  city.  The  river  is  alive  with  steam- 
boats, large  and  small,  mostly  under  the  British  flag; 
but  native  craft  of  the  old  style  have  not  yet  been  put 
to  flight.  Propelled  by  sail  or  oar,  the  latter  creep 
along  the  shore;  and  at  Pagoda  Anchorage  near  the 
city  they  form  a  floating  town  in  which  families  are 
bom  and  die  without  ever  having  a  home  on  terra 
firma. 

Big-footea  women  are  seen  earning  an  honest  living 
by  plying  the  oar,  or  swinging  on  the  scull-beam  with 
babies  strapped  on  their  backs.  One  may  notice  also 
the  so-called  "flower-boats,"  embellished  like  the 
palaces  of  water  fairies.  Moored  in  one  locality,  they 
are  a  well-known  resort  of  the  vicious.     In  the  fields  are 


lo  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

the  tillers  of  the  soil  wading  barefoot  and  bareheaded 
in  mud  and  water,  holding  plough  or  harrow  drawn  by 
an  amphibious  creature  called  a  carabao  or  water- 
buffalo,  burying  by  hand  in  the  mire  the  roots  of  young 
rice  plants,  or  applying  as  a  fertiliser  the  ordure  and 
garbage  of  the  city.  Such  unpoetic  toils  never 
could  have  inspired  the  georgic  muse  of  Vergil  or 
Thomson. 

The  most  picturesque  structure  that  strikes  the  eye 
as  one  approaches  the  city  is  a  Christian  college — show- 
ing how  times  have  changed.  In  1850  the  foreign 
quarter  was  in  a  suburb  near  one  of  the  gates.  There 
I  dined  with  Sir  John  Bowring  at  the  British  Consulate, 
having  a  letter  of  introduction  from  his  American 
cousin,  Miss  Maylin,  a  gifted  lady  of  Philadelphia. 
There,  too,  I  lodged  with  Dr.  Happer,  who  by  the  tire- 
less exertions  of  many  years  succeeded  in  laying  the 
foundations  of  that  same  Christian  college.  For  him 
it  is  a  monument  more  lasting  than  brass;  for  China 
it  is  only  one  of  many  lighthouses  now  rising  at  com- 
manding points  on  the  seacoast  and  in  the  interior. 

In  passing  the  Fati,  a  recreation-ground  near  the 
city,  a  view  is  obtained  of  the  amusements  of  the  rich 
and  the  profligate.  We  see  a  multitude  seated  around 
a  cockpit  intent  on  a  cock-fight;  but  the  cocks  are 
quails,  not  barnyard  fowls.  Here,  too,  is  a  smaller  and 
more  exclusive  circle  stooping  over  a  pair  of  crickets 
engaged  in  deadly  combat.  Insects  of  other  sorts  or 
pugnacious  birds  are  sometimes  substituted ;  and  it  might 
be  supposed  that  the  people  must  be  warlike  in  their 
disposition,  to  enjoy  such  spectacles.  The  fact  is,  they 
are  fond  of  fighting  by  proxy.     What  attracts  them 


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KWANGTUNG  AND  KWANGSI 


II 


most,  however,  is  the  chance  of  winning  or  losing  a 
wager. 

A  more  intellectual  entertainment  to  be  seen  in  many 
places  is  the  solving  of  historical  enigmas.  Some 
ancient  celebrity  is  represented  by  an  animal  in  a 
rhyming  couplet;  and  the  man  who  detects  the  hero 
under  this  disguise  wins  a  considerable  sum.  Such  is 
the  native  passion  for  gambling  that  bets  are  even  made 
on  the  result  of  the  metropolitan  examinations,  particu- 
larly on  the  province  to  which  will  fall  the  honour  of 
the  first  prize,  that  of  the  scholar-laureateship. 

Officials  in  all  parts  and  benevolent  societies  take 
advantage  of  this  passion  for  gambling  in  opening 
lotteries  to  raise  funds  for  worthy  objects — a  policy 
which  is  unwise  if  not  immoral.  It  should  not  be  for- 
gotten, however,  that  our  own  forefathers  sometimes 
had  recourse  to  lotteries  to  build  churches. 

The  foreign  settlement  now  stands  on  Shamien,  a 
pretty  islet  in  the  river,  in  splendid  contrast  with  the 
squalor  of  the  native  streets.  The  city  wall  is  not 
conspicuous,  if  indeed  it  is  visible  beyond  the  houses  of 
a  crowded  suburb.  Yet  one  may  be  sure  that  it  is 
there;  for  every  large  town  must  have  a  wall  for  pro- 
tection, and  the  whole  empire  counts  no  fewer  than 
1-553  walled  cities.  What  an  index  to  the  insecurity 
resulting  from  an  ill-regulated  police!  The  Chinese  are 
surprised  to  hear  that  in  all  the  United  States  there  is 
nothing  which  they  would  call  a  city,  because  the 
American  cities  are  destitute  of  walls. 

Canton  with  its  suburbs  contains  over  two  million 
people;  it  is  therefore  the  most  populous  city  in  the 
empire.     In  general  the  houses  are  low,   dark,   and 


12  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

dirty,  and  the  streets  are  for  the  most  part  too  narrow 
for  anything  broader  than  a  sedan  or  a  "rickshaw" 
(jinriksha).  Yet  in  city  and  suburbs  the  eye  is  dazzled 
by  the  richness  of  the  shops,  especially  of  those  dealing 
in  silks  and  embroideries.  In  strong  contrast  with  this 
luxurious  profusion  may  be  seen  crowds  of  beggars 
displaying  their  loathsome  sores  at  the  doors  of  the 
rich  in  order  to  extort  thereby  a  penny  from  those  who 
might  not  be  disposed  to  give  from  motives  of  charity. 
The  narrow  streets  are  thronged  with  coolies  in  quality 
of  beasts  of  burden,  having  their  loads  suspended  from 
each  end  of  an  elastic  pole  balanced  on  the  shoulder,  or 
carrying  their  betters  in  sedan  chairs,  two  bearers  for 
a  commoner,  four  for  a  "swell,"  and  six  or  eight  for 
a  magnate.  High  officials  borne  in  these  luxurious 
vehicles  are  accompanied  by  lictors  on  horse  or  foot. 
Bridegrooms  and  brides  are  allowed  to  pose  for  the 
nonce  as  grandees;  and  the  bridal  chair,  whose  drapery 
blends  the  rainbow  and  the  butterfly,  is  heralded  by  a 
band  of  music,  the  blowing  of  horns,  and  the  clashing 
of  cymbals.  The  block  and  jam  thus  occasioned  are 
such  as  no  people  except  the  patient  Chinese  would 
tolerate.  They  bow  to  custom  and  smile  at  incon- 
venience. Of  horse-cars  or  carriages  there  are  none 
except  in  new  streets.  Rickshaws  and  wheelbarrows 
push  their  way  in  the  narrowest  alleys,  and  compete 
with  sedans  for  a  share  of  the  passenger  traffic. 

In  those  blue  hills  that  hang  like  clouds  on  the  verge 
of  the  horizon  and  bear  the  poetical  name  of  White 
Cloud,  there  are  gardens  that  combine  in  rich  variety 
the  fruits  of  both  the  torrid  and  the  temperate 
zones.     Tea    and    silk    are   grown    in    many    other 


KWANGTUNG  AND  KWANGSI  13 

parts  of  China;  but  here  they  are  produced  of  a 
superior  quality. 

Enterprising  and  intelligent,  the  people  of  this 
province  have  overflowed  into  the  islands  of  the  Pacific 
from  Singapore  to  Honolulu.  Touching  at  Java  in 
1850,  I  found  refreshments  at  the  shop  of  a  Canton  man 
who  showed  a  manifest  superiority  to  the  natives  of 
the  island.  Is  it  not  to  be  regretted  that  the  Chinese  are 
excluded  from  the  Philippines?  Would  not  the  future 
of  that  archipelago  be  brighter  if  the  shiftless  native 
were  replaced  by  the  thrifty  Chinaman? 

It  was  in  Canton  that  American  trade  suffered  most 
from  the  boycott  of  1905,  because  there  the  ill- 
treatment  of  Chinese  in  America  was  most  deeply 
felt,  the  Chinese  in  California  being  almost  exclusively 
from  the  province  of  Canton. 

The  viceroy  of  Canton  has  also  the  provmce  of 
Kwangsi  under  his  jurisdiction.  Mountainous  and 
thinly  peopled,  it  is  regarded  by  its  associate  as  a 
burden,  being  in  an  almost  chronic  state  of  rebellion  and 
requiring  large  armies  to  keep  its  turbulent  inhabitants 
in  order. 


CHAPTER  III 

PROVINCE  OF  FUKIEN 

Amoy — Bold  Navigators — Foochow — Mountain  of  Ku- 
shan — The  Bridge  of  Ten  Thousand  Years 

FOLLOWING  the  coast  to  the  north  some  three 
hundred  miles  we  come  to  Amoy,  the  first 
important  seaport  in  the  adjacent  province  of  Fukien. 
The  aspect  of  the  country  has  undergone  a  change. 
Hills  attain  the  altitude  of  mountains,  and  the  alluvial 
plains,  so  conspicuous  about  Canton,  become  con- 
tracted to  narrow  valleys. 

The  people,  too,  are  changed  in  speech  and  feature. 
Taller,  coarser  in  physiognomy,  with  high  cheek-bones 
and  harsh  voices,  their  dialect  is  totally  unintelligible 
to  people  of  the  neighbouring  province.  As  an  ex- 
ample of  the  diversity  of  dialects  in  China,  may  be 
cited  the  Chinese  word  for  man.  In  some  parts  of 
Fukien  it  is  long]  in  Canton,  yan  or  yin\  at  Ningpo, 
ning'y  and  at  Peking,  jin. 

One  is  left  in  doubt  whether  the  people  or  the  moun- 
tains which  they  inhabit  were  the  most  prominent 
factors  in  determining  the  dividing  line  that  separates 
them  from  their  neighbours  on  the  south  and  west. 
In  enterprise  and  energy  they  rival  the  Cantonese. 
They  are  bold  navigators ;  the  grand  island  of  Formosa, 
now  ceded  to  Japan,  was  colonised  by  them;  and  by 

14 


PROVINCE  OF  FUKIEN  15 

them  also  the  savage  aborigines  were  driven  over  to 
the  east  coast.  A  peculiar  sort  of  black  tea  is  grown 
on  these  mountains,  and,  along  with  grass  cloth,  forms 
a  staple  in  the  trade  of  Amoy.  The  harbour  is  not 
wanting  in  beauty;  and  a  view  from  one  of  the  hill-tops, 
from  which  hundreds  of  villages  are  visible,  is  highly 
picturesque.  Of  the  town  of  Amoy  with  its  200,000 
people  there  is  not  much  to  be  said  except  that  several 
missions,  British  and  American,  which  opened  stations 
there  soon  after  the  first  war  with  Great  Britain,  have 
met  with  encouraging  success.  At  Swatow,  a  district 
in  Canton  Province  beyond  the  boundary,  the  American 
Baptists  have  a  flourishing  mission. 

Entering  the  Formosan  Channel  we  proceed  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Min,  a  fine  river  which  leads  up  to 
Foochow  (Fuchau),  some  thirty  miles  inland.  We 
do  not  stop  to  explore  the  Island  of  Formosa  because, 
having  been  ceded  to  Japan,  it  no  longer  forms  a  part 
of  the  Chinese  Empire.  From  the  river  the  whole 
province  is  sometimes  described  as  "the  country  of 
Min";  but  its  official  name  is  Fukien.  This  name 
does  not  signify  "happily  established,"  as  stated  in 
most  books,  but  is  compounded  of  the  names  of  its 
two  chief  cities  by  taking  the  first  syllable  of  each, 
somewhat  as  the  pioneer  settlers  of  Arkansas  formed 
the  name  of  the  boundary  town  of  Texarkana. 
The  names  of  some  other  provinces  of  China  are  formed 
in  the  same  way;  e.g.  Kiangsu,  Kansuh,  and  that  of 
the  viceregal  district  of  Yunkwei. 

Kushan,  a  mountain  on  the  bank  of  the  river,  is 
famed  for  its  scenery;  and,  as  with  mountains  every- 
where else  in  China,  it  has  been  made  the  seat  of  a 


1 6  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

Buddhist  monastery,  with  some  scores  of  monks 
passing  their  time  not  in  contemplation,  but  in  idleness. 

The  city  of  Foochow  is  imposing  with  its  fine  wall 
of  stone,  and  a  long  stone  bridge  called  Wansuik'iao, 
"the  bridge  of  ten  thousand  years."  It  has  a  popu- 
lation of  about  650,000.  To  add  to  its  importance  it 
has  a  garrison  or  colony  of  Manchus  who  from  the  date 
of  the  conquest  in  1644  have  lived  apart  from  the 
Chinese  and  have  not  diminished  in  numbers. 

The  American  Board  and  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Board  have  large  and  prosperous  missions  at  this  great 
centre,  and  from  this  base  they  have  ramified  through 
the  surrounding  mountains,  mostly  following  the 
tributaries  of  the  Min  up  to  their  sources.  In  1850 
I  was  entertained  at  Foochow  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  C.  C. 
Baldwin,  who,  I  am  glad  to  say,  still  lives  after  the 
lapse  of  fifty-five  years;  but  he  is  no  longer  in  the 
mission  field. 


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CHAPTER  IV 

PROVINCE  OF  CHEHKIANG 

Chusan  Archipelago — Putu  and  Pirates — Queer  Fishers 
and  Queer  Boats — Ningpo — A  Literary  Triumph — 
Search  for  a  Soul — Chinese  Psychology — Hangchow 
— The  Great  Bore 

CHEHKIANG,  the  next  province  to  the  north, 
and  the  smallest  of  the  eighteen,  is  a  portion 
of  the  highlands  mentioned  in  the  last  chapter.  It 
is  about  as  large  as  Indiana,  while  some  of  the  provinces 
have  four  or  five  times  that  area.  There  is  no  apparent 
reason  why  it  should  have  a  distinct  provincial  govern- 
ment save  that  its  waters  flow  to  the  north,  or  perhaps 
because  the  principality  of  Yuih  (iioo  B.C.)  had  such 
a  boundary,  or,  again,  perhaps  because  the  language 
of  the  people  is  akin  to  that  of  the  Great  Plain  in  which 
its  chief  river  finds  an  outlet.  How  often  does  a 
conqueror  sever  regions  which  form  a  natural  unit, 
merely  to  provide  a  principality  for  some  favourite ! 

Lying  off  its  coast  is  the  Chusan  archipelago,  in  which 
two  islands  are  worthy  of  notice.  The  largest,  which 
gives  the  archipelago  its  name,  is  about  half  the  length 
of  Long  Island,  N.  Y,,  and  is  so  called  from  a  fancied 
resemblance  to  a  junk,  it  having  a  high  promontory 
at  either  end.  It  contains  eighteen  valleys — a  division 
not    connected    with    the    eighteen    provinces,    but 

17 


1 8  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

perpetuated  in  a  popular  rhyme  which  reflects  severely 
on  the  morals  of  its  inhabitants.  Shielded  by  the  sea, 
and  near  enough  to  the  land  to  strike  with  ease  at  any 
point  of  the  neighbouring  coast,  the  British  forces 
found  here  a  secure  camping-ground  in  their  first 
war. 

To  the  eastward  lies  the  sacred  Isle  of  Putu,  the 
lona  of  the  China  coast.  With  a  noble  landscape,  and 
so  little  land  as  to  offer  no  temptation  to  the  .worldly, 
it  was  inevitable  that  the  Buddhists  should  fix  on  it 
as  a  natural  cloister.  For  many  centuries  it  has  been 
famous  for  its  monasteries,  some  of  which  are  built  of 
timbers  taken  from  imperial  palaces.  Formerly  the 
missionaries  from  neighbouring  seaports  found  at  Putu 
refuge  from  the  summer  heat,  but  it  is  now  abandoned, 
since  it  afforded  no  shelter  from  the  petty  piracy  at 
all  times  so  rife  in  these  waters. 

In  1855  Mr.  (afterward  Bishop)  Russell  and  myself 
were  captured  by  pirates  while  on  our  way  to  Putu. 
The  most  gentlemanly  freebooters  I  ever  heard  of, 
they  invited  us  to  share  their  breakfast  on  the  deck  of 
our  own  junk;  but  they  took  possession  of  all  our 
provisions  and  our  junk  too,  sending  us  to  our  destina- 
tion in  a  small  boat,  and  promising  to  pay  us  a  friendly 
visit  on  the  island.  One  of  them,  who  had  taken  my 
friend's  watch,  came  to  the  owner  to  ask  hita  how  to 
wind  it.  The  Rev.  Walter  Lowrie,  founder  of  the 
Presbyterian  Mission  at  Ningpo,  was  not  so  fortunate. 
Attacked  by  pirates  nearly  on  the  same  spot,  he  was 
thrown  into  the  sea  and  drowned. 

Passing  these  islands  we  come  to  the  Ningpo  River, 
with  Chmhai,  a  small  city,  at  its  mouth,  and  Ningpo, 


OF  THE 

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PROVINCE  OF  CHEHKIANG  19 

a  great  emporium,  some  twelve  miles  inland.  This 
curious  arrangement,  so  different  from  what  one  would 
expect,  confronts  one  in  China  with  the  regularity  of 
a  natural  law:  Canton,  Shanghai,  Foochow,  and  Tien- 
tsin, all  conform  to  it.  The  small  city  stands  at  the 
anchorage  for  heavy  shipping;  but  the  great  city, 
renouncing  this  advantage,  is  located  some  distance 
inland,  to  be  safe  from  sea-robbers  and  foreign  foes. 

As  we  ascend  the  river  we  are  struck  with  more 
than  one  peculiar  mode  of  taking  fish.  We  see  a 
number  of  cormorants  perched  on  the  sides  of  a  boat. 
Now  and  then  a  bird  dives  into  the  water  and  comes 
up  with  a  fish  in  its  beak.  If  the  fish  be  a  small  one, 
the  bird  swallows  it  as  a  reward  for  its  services;  but 
a  fish  of  considerable  size  is  hindered  in  its  descent  by 
a  ring  around  the  bird's  neck  and  becomes  the  booty  of 
the  fisherman.  The  birds  appear  to  be  well-trained; 
and  their  sharp  eyes  penetrate  the  depths  of  the  water. 
Another  novelty  in  fishing  is  a  contrivance  by  which 
fish  are  made  to  catch  themselves — not  by  running 
into  a  net  or  by  swallowing  a  hook,  but  by  leaping  over 
a  white  board  and  falling  into  a  boat.  More  strange 
than  all  are  men  who,  like  the  cormorants,  dive  into 
the  water  and  emerge  with  fish — sometimes  with  one 
in  either  hand.  These  fishermen  when  in  the  water 
always  have  their  feet  on  the  ground  and  grope  along 
the  shore.  The  first  time  I  saw  this  method  in  practice 
I  ran  to  the  brink  of  the  river  to  save,  as  I  thought,  the 
life  of  a  poor  man.  He  no  sooner  raised  his  head  out  of 
the  water,  however,  than  down  it  went  again ;  and  I  was 
laughed  at  for  my  want  of  discernment  by  a  crowd  of 
people  who  shouted  Ko-w^,  Ko-ng,'' he's  catching  fish." 


20  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

The  natives  have  a  peculiar  mode  of  propelling  a 
boat.  Sitting  in  the  stem  the  boatman  holds  the  helm 
with  one  hand,  while  with  the  other  he  grasps  a  long 
pipe  which  he  smokes  at  leisure.  Without  mast  or  sail, 
he  makes  speed  against  wind  or  current  by  making 
use  of  his  feet  to  drive  the  oar.  He  thus  gains  the 
advantage  of  weight  and  of  his  strong  sartorial  muscles. 
These  little  craft  are  the  swiftest  boats  on  the  river. 

At  the  forks  of  the  river,  in  a  broad  plain  dotted 
with  villages,  rise  the  stone  walls  of  Ningpo,  six  miles 
in  circuit,  enclosing  a  network  of  streets  better  built  than 
those  of  the  majority  of  Chinese  cities.  The  foreign 
settlement  is  on  the  north  bank  of  the  main  stream; 
but  a  few  missionaries  live  within  the  walls,  and  there 
I  passed  the  first  years  of  my  life  in  China. 

Above  the  walls,  conspicuous  at  a  distance,  appears 
the  pinnacle  of  a  lofty  pagoda,  a  structure  like  most 
of  those  bearing  the  name,  with  eight  comers  and  nine 
stories.  Originally  designed  for  the  mere  purposes  of 
look-outs,  these  airy  edifices  have  degenerated  into 
appliances  of  superstition  to  attract  good  influences  and 
to  ward  off  evil. 

Not  only  has  this  section  of  the  province  a  dialect 
of  its  own,  of  the  mandarin  type,  but  its  people  possess 
a  finer  physique  than  those  of  the  south.  Taller,  with 
eyes  less  angular  and  faces  of  faultless  symmetry,  they 
are  a  handsome  people,  famed  alike  for  literary  talent 
and  for  commercial  enterprise.  During  my  residence 
there  the  whole  city  was  once  thrown  into  excitement 
by  the  news  that  one  of  her  sons  had  won  the  first 
prize  in  prose  and  verse  in  competition,  before  the 
emperor,  with  the  assembled  scholars  of  the  empire — 


OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


^1 
CI 

<l 

in' 


?' 


PROVINCE  OF  CHEHKIANG  21 

an  honour  comparable  to  that  of  poet  laureate  or  of  a 
victor  in  the  Olympic  games.  When  that  distinction 
falls  to  a  city,  it  is  believed  that,  in  order  to  equalise 
matters,  the  event  is  sure  to  be  followed  by  three  years 
of  dearth.  In  this  instance,  the  highest  mandarins 
escorted  the  wife  of  the  literary  athlete  to  the  top  of 
the  wall,  where  she  scattered  a  few  handfuls  of  rice 
to  avert  the  impending  famine. 

My  house  was  attached  to  a  new  church  which  was 
surmounted  by  a  bell-tower.  In  a  place  where  nothing 
of  the  sort  had  previously  existed,  that  accessory 
attracted  many  visitors  even  before  the  bell  was  in 
position  to  invite  them.  One  day  a  weeping  mother, 
attended  by  an  anxious  retinue,  presented  herself  and 
asked  permission  to  climb  the  tower,  which  request 
of  course  was  not  refused. 

Uncovering  a  bundle,  she  said:  "This  is  my  boy's 
clothing.  Yesterday  he  was  up  in  the  tower  and, 
taking  fright  at  the  height  of  the  building,  his  little 
soul  forsook  his  body  and  he  had  to  go  home  without 
it.  He  is  now  delirious  with  fever.  We  think  the 
soul  is  hovering  about  in  this  huge  edifice  and  that  it 
will  recognise  these  clothes  and,  taking  possession  of 
them,  will  return  home  with  us." 

When  a  bird  escapes  from  its  cage  the  Chinese  some- 
times hang  the  cage  on  the  branch  of  a  tree  and  the 
bird  returns  to  its  house  again.  They  believe  they  can 
capture  a  fugitive  soul  in  the  same  way.  Sometimes, 
too,  a  man  may  be  seen  standing  on  a  housetop  at  night 
waving  a  lantern  and  chanting  in  dismal  tones  an 
invitation  to  some  wandering  spirit  to  return  to  its 
abode.     Whether  in  the  case  just  mentioned  the  poor 


22  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

woman's  hopes  were  fulfilled  and  whether  the  animula 
vagula  hlandula  returned  from  its  wanderings  I  never 
learned,  but  I  mention  the  incident  as  exhibiting  another 
picturesque  superstition. 

Chinese  psychology  recognises  three  souls,  viz.,  the 
animal,  the  spiritual,  and  the  intellectual.  The  ab- 
sence of  one  of  the  three  does  not,  therefore,  involve 
immediate  death,  as  does  the  departure  of  the  soul  in 
our  dual  system. 

But  I  tarry  too  long  at  my  old  home.  We  have 
practically  an  empire  still  before  us,  and  will,  therefore, 
steer  west  for  Hangchow. 

In  the  thirteenth  century  this  was  the  residence  of 
an  imperial  court;  and  the  provincial  capital  still 
retains  many  signs  of  imperial  magnificence.  The 
West  Lake  with  its  pavilions  and  its  lilies,  a  pleasance 
fit  for  an  emperor;  the  vast  circuit  of  the  city's  walls 
enclosing  hill  and  vale;  and  its  commanding  site  on 
the  bank  of  a  great  river  at  the  head  of  a  broad  bay — 
all  combine  to  invest  it  with  dignity.  Well  do  I  re- 
call the  day  in  1855  when  white  men  first  trod  its  streets. 
They  were  the  Rev.  Henry  Rankin  and  myself.  Though 
not  permitted  by  treaty  to  penetrate  even  the  rind  of 
the  "melon,"  as  the  Chinese  call  their  empire,  to  a 
distance  farther  than  admitted  of  our  returning  to 
sleep  at  home,  we  nevertheless  broke  bounds  and 
set  out  for  the  old  capital  of  the  Sungs.  On  the  way 
we  made  a  halt  at  the  city  of  Shaohing;  and  as  we  were 
preaching  to  a  numerous  and  respectful  audience  in 
the  public  square,  a  well-dressed  man  pressed  through 
the  crowd  and  invited  us  to  do  him  the  honour  of 
taking  tea  at  his  house.     His  mansion  exhibited  every 


V->?(. 


OF 


h 


< 

O 


S 
2 


PROVINCE  OF  CHEHKIANG  23 

evidence  of  affluence;  and  he,  a  scholar  by  profession, 
aspiring  to  the  honours  of  the  mandarinate,  explained, 
as  he  ordered  for  us  an  ample  repast,  that  he  would 
have  felt  ashamed  if  scholars  from  the  West  had  been 
allowed  to  pass  through  his  city  without  any  one 
offering  them  hospitality.  What  courtesy!  Could 
Hebrew  or  Arab  hospitality  surpass  it? 

Two  things  for  which  the  city  of  Shaohing  is  widely 
celebrated  are  (i)  a  sort  of  rice  wine  used  throughout 
the  Empire  as  being  indispensable  at  mandarin  feasts, 
and  (2)  clever  lawyers  who  are  deemed  indispensable 
as  legal  advisers  to  mandarins.  They  are  the  **  Phila- 
delphia lawyers"  of  China. 

As  we  entered  Hangchow  the  boys  shouted  Wo  tsei 
lai  liao,  "the  Japanese  are  coming" — never  having  seen 
a  European,  and  having  heard  their  fathers  speak  of 
the  Japanese  as  sea-robbers,  a  terror  to  the  Chinese 
coast.  Up  to  this  date,  Japan  had  no  treaty  with 
China,  and  it  had  never  carried  on  any  sort  of  regular 
commerce  with  or  acknowledged  the  superiority  of 
China.  Before  many  years  had  passed,  these  youths 
became  accustomed  to  Western  garb  and  features; 
and  I  never  heard  that  any  foreigner  suffered  insult  or 
injury  at  their  hands. 

In  i860  the  Rev.  J.  L.  Nevius,  one  of  my  colleagues, 
took  possession  of  the  place  in  the  name  of  Christ. 
He  was  soon  followed  by  Bishop  Burden,  of  the  English 
Church  Mission,  whose  apostolic  successor.  Bishop 
Moule,  now  makes  it  the  seat  of  his  immense  diocese. 

Another  claim  to  distinction  not  to  be  overlooked 
is  that  its  river  is  a  trap  for  whales.  Seven  or  eight 
years  ago  a  cetaceous  monster  was  stranded  near  the 


24  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

river's  mouth.  The  Rev.  Dr.  Judson,  president  of  the 
Hangchow  Mission  College,  went  to  see  it  and  sent  me  an 
account  of  his  observations.  He  estimated  the  length 
of  the  whale  at  loo  feet;  the  tail  had  been  removed  by 
the  natives.  To  explain  the  incident  it  is  necessary 
to  say  that,  the  bay  being  funnel-shaped,  the  tides  rise 
to  an  extraordinary  height.  Twice  a  month,  at  the 
full  and  the  change  of  the  moon,  the  attractions  of  sun 
and  moon  combine,  and  the  water  rushes  in  with  a 
roar  like  that  of  a  tidal  wave.  The  bore  of  Hangchow 
is  not  surpassed  by  that  of  the  Hooghly  or  of  the  Bay 
of  Fundy.  Vessels  are  wrecked  by  it;  and  even  the 
monsters  of  the  deep  are  unable  to  contend  with  the 
fury  of  its  irresistible  advance. 


CHAPTER  V 

PROVINCE  OF  KIANGSU 

Nanking — Shanghai — The    Yang-tse  Kiang — The    Yel- 
low River 

BORDERING  on  the  sea,  traversed  by  the  Grand 
Canal  and  the  Yang-tse  Kiang,  the  chief  river 
of  the  Empire,  rich  in  agriculture,  fisheries,  and  com- 
merce, Kiangsu  is  the  undisputed  queen  of  the 
eighteen  provinces.  Last  year  it  was  represented  to 
the  throne  as  too  heavy  a  burden  for  one  set  of  officers. 
The  northern  section  was  therefore  detached  and  erected 
into  a  separate  province;  but  before  the  new  govern- 
ment was  organised  the  Empress  Dowager  yielded  to 
remonstrances  and  rescinded  her  hasty  decree — showing 
how  reluctant  she  is  to  contravene  the  wishes  of  her 
people.  What  China  requires  above  all  things  is  the 
ballot  box,  by  which  the  people  may  make  their  wishes 
known. 

The  name  of  the  province  is  derived  from  its  two 
chief  cities,  Suchow  and  Nanking.  Suchow,  the  Paris 
of  the  Far  East,  is  coupled  with  Hangchow  in  a  popular 
rhyme,  which  represents  the  two  as  paragon  cities: 

*'Shang  yu  fien  fang  hia  yu  Su-Hang." 

**Su  and  Hang,  so  rich  and  fair, 
May  well  with  Paradise  compare.' 

25 


>> 


26  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

The  local  dialect  is  so  soft  and  musical  that  strolling 
players  from  Suchow  are  much  sought  for  in  the  ad- 
jacent provinces.     A  well-known  couplet  says : 

"I'd  rather  hear  men  wrangle  in  Suchow 's  dulcet  tones 

Than  hear  that  mountain  jargon,  composed  of  sighs  and  groans." 

Farther  inland,  near  the  banks  of  the  "Great  River, " 
stands  Nanking,  the  old  capital  of  the  Ming  dynasty. 
The  Manchus,  unwilling  to  call  it  a  king,  i.e.  seat  of 
empire,  changed  its  name  to  Kiangning;  but  the  old 
title  survives  in  spite  of  official  jealousy.  As  it  will 
figure  prominently  in  our  history  we  shall  not  pause 
there  at  present,  but  proceed  to  Shanghai,  a  place 
which  more  than  any  other  controls  the  destinies  of 

the  State. 

Formerly  an  insignificant  town  of  the  third  order 
(provincial  capitals  and  prefectural  towns  ranking 
respectively  first  and  second),  some  sapient  Englishman 
with  an  eye  to  commerce  perceived  the  advantage  of 
the  site;  and  in  the  dictation  of  the  terms  of  peace  in 
1842  it  was  made  one  of  the  five  ports.  It  has  come  to 
overshadow  Canton;  and  more  than  all  the  other 
ports  it  displays  to  the  Chinese  the  marvels  of  Western 
skill,  knowledge,  and  enterprise. 

On  a  broad  estuary  near  the  mouth  of  the  main 
artery  that  penetrates  the  heart  of  China,  it  has  become 
a  leading  emporium  of  the  world's  commerce.  The 
native  city  still  hides  its  squalor  behind  low  walls 
of  brick,  but  outside  the  North  Gate  lies  a  tract  of 
land  known  as  the  "Foreign  Concessions."  There  a 
beautiful  city  styled  the  "model  settlement"  has 
sprung  up  like  a  gorgeous  pond-lily  from  the  muddy 


SUCHOW:   ONE  OF  THP:  WATER  GATES 


IN  SUCHOW  CITY 


PROVINCE  OF  KIANGSU  27 

paddy-fields.  Having  spent  a  year  there,  I  regard  it 
with  a  sort  of  affection  as  one  of  my  Oriental  homes. 

Shanghai  presents  a  spectacle  rare  amongst  the 
seaports  of  the  world.  Its  broad  streets,  well  kept 
and  soon  to  be  provided  with  electric  trolleys,  extend 
for  miles  along  the  banks  of  two  rivers,  lined  with  opu- 
lent business  houses  and  luxurious  mansions,  most  of 
the  latter  being  surrounded  by  gardens  and  embowered 
in  groves  of  flowering  trees.  Nor  do  these  magazines 
and  dwelling-houses  stand  merely  for  taste  and  opu- 
lence. Within  the  bounds  of  the  Concessions  is  the  reign 
of  law — not,  as  elsewhere  in  China,  the  arbitrary  will 
of  a  magistrate,  but  the  offspring  of  freedom  and  justice. 
Foreigners  live  everywhere  under  the  protection  of 
their  own  national  flags:  and  within  the  Concessions 
Chinese  accused  of  crimes  are  tried  by  a  mixed  court 
which  serves  as  an  object-lesson  in  justice  and  hu- 
manity. Had  one  time  to  peep  into  a  native  yamen, 
one  might  see  bundles  of  bamboos,  large  and  small, 
prepared  for  the  bastinado;  one  might  see,  also,  thumb- 
screws, wooden  boots,  wooden  collars,  and  other 
instruments  of  torture,  some  of  them  intended  to  make 
mince-meat  of  the  human  body.  The  use  of  these  has 
now  been  forbidden.* 

In  Shanghai  there  are  schools  of  all  grades,  some 
under  the  foreign  municipal  government,  others  under 
missionary     societies.      St.    John's     College      (U.  S. 


*  In  another  city  a  farmer  having  extorted  a  sum  of  money  from  a  tailor 
living  within  the  Concession,  the  latter  appealed  to  the  British  consul  for 
justice.  The  consul,  an  inexperienced  young  man,  observing  that  the 
case  concerned  only  the  Chinese,  referred  it  to  the  city  magistrate,  who 
instantly  ordered  the  tailor  to  receive  a  hundred  blows  for  having  applied 
to  a  foreign  court. 


28  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

Episcopal)  and  the  Anglo-Chinese  College  (American 
M.  E.)  bear  the  palm  in  the  line  of  education  so  long  borne 
by  the  Roman  Catholics  of  Siccawei.  Added  to  these, 
newspapers  foreign  and  native — ^the  latter  exercising 
a  freedom  of  opinion  impossible  beyond  the  limits  of 
this  city  of  refuge — the  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of 
Christian  Knowledge  and  other  translation  bureaux, 
foreign  and  native,  turning  out  books  by  the  thousand 
with  the  aid  of  steam  presses,  form  a  combination  of 
forces  to  which  China  is  no  longer  insensible. 

Resuming  our  imaginary  voyage  we  proceed  north- 
ward, and  in  the  space  of  an  hour  find  ourselves  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Yang-tse  Kiang,  or  Ta Kiang,  the  "Great 
River,"  as  the  Chinese  call  it.  The  width  of  its  em- 
bouchure suggests  an  Asiatic  rival  of  the  Amazon  and 
La  Plata.  We  now  see  why  this  part  of  the  ocean  is 
sometimes  described  as  the  Yellow  Sea.  A  river 
whose  volume,  it  is  said,  equals  that  of  two  hundred 
and  forty-four  such  rivulets  as  Father  Thames,  pours 
into  it  its  muddy  waters,  making  new  islands  and  ad- 
vancing the  shore  far  into  the  domain  of  Neptune. 

Notice  on  the  left  those  long  rows  of  trees  that 
appear  to  spring  from  the  bosom  of  the  river. 
They  are  the  life-belt  of  the  Island  of  Tsungming 
which  six  centuries  ago  rose  like  the  fabled  Delos  from 
the  surface  of  the  turbid  waters.  Accepted  as  the 
river's  tribute  to  the  Dragon  Throne,  it  now  forms  a 
district  of  the  province  with  a  population  of  over  half 
a  million.  About  the  same  time,  a  large  tract  of  land 
was  carried  into  the  sea  by  the  Hwang  Ho,  the  * '  Yellow 
River,"  which  gave  rise  to  the  popular  proverb, 
**If  we    lose  in  Tungking  we  gain  in    Tsungming." 


CO 

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Of 


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PROVINCE  OF  KIANGSU  29 

The  former  river  comes  with  its  mouth  full  of  pearls; 
the  latter  yawns  to  engulf  the  adjacent  land.  At 
present,  however,  the  Yellow  River  is  dry  and  thirsty, 
the  unruly  stream,  the  opposite  of  Horace's  uxorius 
amnis,  having  about  forty  years  ago  forsaken  its  old 
bed  and  rushed  away  to  the  Gulf  of  Pechili  (Peh-chihli) . 
This  produced  as  much  consternation  as  the  Mississippi 
would  occasion  if  it  should  plough  its  way  across 
the  state  that  bears  its  name  and  enter  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  at  Mobile  Bay.  The  same  phenomenon 
has  occurred  at  long  intervals  in  times  past.  The 
wilful  stream  has  oscillated  with  something  like  period- 
ical regularity  from  side  to  side  of  the  Shantung  prom- 
ontory, and  sometimes  it  has  flowed  with  a  divided 
current,  converting  that  territory  into  an  island.  Now, 
however,  the  river  seems  to  have  settled  itself  in  its 
new  channel,  entering  the  gulf  at  Yang  Chia  Kow — 
a  place  which  foreign  sailors  describe  as  "Yankee 
cow" — and  making  a  portentous  alteration  in  the 
geography  of  the  globe. 


CHAPTER  VI 

PROVINCE  OF  SHANTUNG 

Kiao-Chao — Visit  to  Confucius' s  Tomb — Expedition  to 
the  Jews  of  K'ai-fung-fu — The  Grand  Canal — Chefoo 

IN  SHANTUNG  the  people  appear  to  be  much  more 
robust  than  their  neighbours  to  the  south. 
Wheat  and  millet  rather  than  rice  are  their  staple  food. 
In  their  orchards  apples,  pears  and  peaches  take  the 
place  of  oranges. 

At  Kiao-chao  (Kiau-Chau)  the  Germans,  who  occu- 
pied that  port  in  1897,  have  built  a  beautiful  town 
opposite  the  Island  of  Tsingtao,  presenting  a  fine  model 
for  imitation,  which,  however,  the  Chinese  are  not  in 
haste  to  copy.  They  have  constructed  also  a  railway 
from  the  sea  to  Tsinan-fu,  very  nearly  bisecting  the 
province.  Weihien  is  destined  to  become  a  railroad 
centre;  and  several  missionary  societies  are  erecting 
colleges  there  to  teach  the  people  truths  that  Confucius 
never  knew.  More  than  half  a  century  ago,  when  a 
missionary  distributed  Christian  books  in  that  region, 
the  people  brought  them  back  saying,  "We  have  the 
works  of  our  Sage,  and  they  are  sufficient  for  us." 
Will  not  the  new  arts  and  sciences  of  the  West  con- 
vince them  that  their  Sage  was  not  omniscient? 

In  1866  I  earned  the  honours  of  a  hadji  by  visiting 
the  tomb  of  Confucius — a  magnificent  mausoleum 
surrounded  by  his  descendants  of    the  seventieth  gen- 

30 


'J 
z 

i4 

< 

z 

o 

W 

r- 
< 
O 

W 
X 


o 

u 
z 

o 


Of 


A^ 


'^A//i/^-^'*f 


^^'''^^R 


RSiTY 


NIA, 


PROVINCE  OF  SHANTUNG  31 

eration,  one  of  whom  in  quality  of  high  priest  to  China's 
greatest  teacher  enjoys  the  rank  of  a  hereditary  duke. 

On  that  occasion,  I  had  come  up  from  a  visit  to  the 
Jews  in  Honan.  Having  profited  by  a  winter  vacation 
to  make  an  expedition  to  K'ai-fung-fu,  I  had  the  in- 
tention of  pushing  on  athwart  the  province  to  Hankow. 
The  interior,  however,  as  I  learned  to  my  intense 
disappointment,  was  convulsed  with  rebellion.  No 
cart  driver  was  willing  to  venture  his  neck,  his  steed, 
and  his  vehicle  by  going  in  that  direction.  I  accordingly 
steered  for  the  Mecca  of  Shantung,  and,  having  paid  my 
respects  to  the  memory  of  China's  greatest  sage,  struck 
the  Grand  Canal  and  proceeded  to  Shanghai.  From 
K'ai-fung-fu  I  had  come  by  land  slowly,  painfully^ 
and  not  without  danger.  From  Tsi-ning  I  drifted 
down  with  luxurious  ease  in  a  well-appointed  house- 
boat, meditating  poetic  terms  in  which  to  describe 
the  contrast. 

The  canal  deserves  the  name  of  "grand"  as  the 
wall  on  the  north  deserves  the  name  of  "great." 
Memorials  of  ancient  times,  they  both  still  stand 
unrivalled  by  anything  the  Western  world  has  to  show, 
if  one  except  the  Siberian  Railway.  The  Great  Wall 
is  an  effete  relic  no  longer  of  use;  and  it  appears  to  be 
a  satire  on  human  foresight  that  the  Grand  Canal 
should  have  been  built  by  the  very  people  whom  the 
Great  Wall  was  intended  to  exclude  from  China.  The 
canal  is  as  useful  to-day  as  it  was  six  centuries  ago, 
and  remains  the  chief  glory  of  the  Mongol  dynasty. 

Kublai  having  set  up  his  throne  in  the  north,  and 
completed  the  conquest  of  the  eighteen  provinces, 
ordered   the  construction  of  this  magnificent   water- 


32  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

way,  which  extends  800  miles  from  Peking  to  Hang- 
chow  and  connects  with  other  waterways  which  put 
the  northern  capital  in  roundabout  communication 
with  provinces  of  the  extreme  south.  His  object  was 
to  tap  the  rice-fields  of  Central  China  and  obtain  a  food 
supply  which  could  not  be  interfered  with  by  those 
daring  sea-robbers,  the  redoubtable  Japanese,  who  had 
destroyed  his  fleets  and  rendered  abortive  his  attempt 
at  conquest.  Of  the  Great  Wall,  it  may  be  said  that 
the  oppression  inseparable  from  its  construction  has- 
tened the  overthrow  of  the  house  of  its  builder.  The 
same  is  probably  true  of  the  Grand  Canal.  The  myriads 
of  unpaid  labourers  who  were  drafted  by  corvee  from 
among  the  Chinese  people  subsequently  enlisted,  they 
or  their  children,  under  the  revolutionary  banner  which 
expelled  the  oppressive  Mongols. 

Another  port  in  this  province  which  we  cannot  pass 
without  an  admiring  glance,  is  Chef 00  (Chifu).  On 
a  fine  hill  rising  from  the  sea  wave  the  flags  of  several 
nations;  in  the  harbour  is  a  cluster  of  islands;  and 
above  the  settlement  another  noble  hill  rears  its  head 
crowned  with  a  temple  and  groves  of  trees.  On  its 
sides  and  near  the  seashore  are  the  residences  of  mis- 
sionaries. There  I  have  more  than  once  found  a 
refuge  from  the  summer  heat,  under  the  hospitable  roof 
of  Mrs.  Nevius,  the  widow  of  my  friend  Dr.  J.  L.  Nevius, 
who,  after  opening  a  mission  in  Hangchow,  became  one 
of  the  pioneers  of  Shantung.  In  Chefoo  he  planted 
not  only  a  church,  but  a  fruit  garden.  To  the  Chinese 
eye  this  garden  was  a  striking  symbol  of  what  his  gospel 
proposed  to  effect  for  the  people. 


SHANGHAI :   MOUTH  OF  SUCHOW  CREEK 


SHANGHAI:  RIVER  VIEW  UP-STREAM 


CHAPTER  VII 

PROVINCE  OF  CHIHLI 

Taku  —  Tientsin  —  Peking  —  The  Summer  Palace — 
Patachu — Temples  of  Heaven,  Earth,  and  Agri- 
culture— Foreign  Quarter — The  Forbidden  City — 
King-Han  Railway — Paoting-fu 

CROSSING  the  gulf  we  reach  Taku,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Peiho,  and,  passing  the  dismantled  forts, 
ascend  the  river  to  Tientsin. 

In  1858  I  spent  two  months  at  Taku  and  Tientsin 
in  connection  with  the  tedious  negotiations  of  that 
year.  At  the  latter  place  I  became  familiar  with  the 
dusty  road  to  the  treaty  temple;  and  at  the  former  I 
witnessed  the  capture  of  the  forts  by  the  combined 
squadrons  of  Great  Britain  and  France.  The  next 
year  on  the  same  ground  I  saw  the  allied  forces  repulsed 
with  heavy  loss — a  defeat  avenged  by  the  capture  of 
Peking  in  i860. 

In  the  Boxer  War  the  relief  force  met  with  formidable 
opposition  at  Tientsin.  The  place  has,  however,  risen 
with  new  splendour  from  its  half -ruined  condition,  and 
now  poses  as  the  principal  residence  of  the  most  power- 
ful of  the  viceroys.  Connected  by  the  river  with  the 
seaboard,  by  the  Grand  Canal  with  several  provinces 
to  the  south,  and  by  rail  with  Peking,  Hankow  and 
Manchuria,   Tientsin    commands    the    chief    lines   of 

33 


34  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

communication  in  northern  China.    In  point  of  trade  it 
ranks  as  the  third  in  importance  of  the  treaty  ports. 

Three  hours  by  rail  bring  us  to  the  gates  of  Peking, 
the  northern  capital.  Formerly  it  took  another  hour  to 
get  within  the  city.  Superstition  or  suspicion  kept  the 
railway  station  at  a  distance;  now,  however,  it  is 
at  the  Great  Central  Gate.  Unlike  Nanking,  Peking 
has  nothing  picturesque  or  commanding  in  its  location. 
On  the  west  and  north,  at  a  distance  of  ten  to  twenty 
miles,  ranges  of  blue  hills  form  a  feature  in  the  land- 
scape. Within  these  limits  the  eye  rests  on  nothing 
but  flat  fields,  interspersed  with  clumps  of  trees  over- 
shadowing some  family  cemetery  or  the  grave  of  some 
grandee. 

Between  the  city  and  the  hills  are  the  Yuen  Ming 
Yuen,  the  Emperor's  summer  palace,  burnt  in  i860 
and  still  an  unsightly  ruin,  and  the  Eho  Yuen,  the  sum- 
mer residence  of  the  Empress  Dowager.  Enclosing 
two  or  three  pretty  hills  and  near  to  a  lofty  range,' 
the  latter  occupies  a  site  of  rare  beauty.  It  also 
possesses  mountain  water  in  rich  abundance.  No  fewer 
than  twenty-four  springs  gush  from  the  base  of  one 
of  its  hills,  feeding  a  pretty  lake  and  numberless 
canals.  Partly  destroyed  in  i860,  this  palace  was  for 
many  years  as  silent  as  the  halls  of  Palmyra.  I  have 
often  wandered  through  its  neglected  grounds.  Now, 
every  prominent  rock  is  crowned  with  pagoda  or 
pavilion.  There  are,  however,  some  things  which  the 
slave  of  the  lamp  is  unable  to  produce  even  at  the 
command  of  an  empress — ^there  are  no  venerable  oaks 
or  tall  pines  to  lend  their  majesty  to  the  scene. 

Patachu,  in  the  adjacent  hills,  used  to  be  a  favourite 


t  ;.^-. 


MEMORIAL  OF  THE  GERMAN  OCCUPATION  OF  KIAUTSCHOU  (KIAO-CHAO) 


GERMAN  GOVERNMENT  BUILDING 


PROVINCE  OF  CHIHLI  35 

summer  resort  for  the  legations  and  other  foreigners 
before  the  seaside  became  accessible  by  rail.  Its  name, 
signifying  the  "eight  great  places,"  denotes  that  number 
of  Buddhist  temples,  built  one  above  another  in  a 
winding  gorge  on  the  hillside.  In  the  highest,  called 
Pearl  Grotto,  1,200  feet  above  the  sea,  I  have  found 
repose  for  many  a  summer.  I  am  there  now  (June, 
1906),  and  there  I  expect  to  write  the  closing  chapters 
of  this  work.  These  temples  are  at  my  feet;  the 
great  city  is  in  full  view.  To  that  shrine  the  emperors 
sometimes  made  excursions  to  obtain  a  distant  prospect 
of  the  world.  One  of  them,  Kien  Lung,  somewhat 
noted  as  a  poet,  has  left,  inscribed  on  a  rock,  a  few 
lines  commemorative  of  his  visit: 

"Why  have  I  scaled  this  dizzy  height? 
Why  sought  this  mountain  den? 
I  tread  as  on  enchanted  ground, 
UnHke  the  abode  of  men. 

"Beneath  my  feet  my  realm  I  see 
As  in  a  map  unrolled, 
Above  my  head  a  canopy 
Adorned  with  clouds  of  gold." 

The  capital  consists  of  two  parts:  the  Tartar  city, 
a  square  of  four  miles;  and  the  Chinese  city,  measuring 
five  miles  by  three.  They  are  separated  by  imposing 
walls  with  lofty  towers,  the  outer  wall  being  twenty- 
one  miles  in  circuit.  At  present  the  subject  people  are 
permitted  to  mingle  freely  with  their  conquerors; 
but  most  of  the  business  is  done  in  the  Chinese  city. 
Resembling  other  Chinese  towns  in  its  unsavoury 
condition,  this  section  contains  two  imperial  temples 
of  great  sanctity.   One  of  these,  the  Temple  of  Heaven, 


36  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

has  a  circular  altar  of  fine  white  marble  with  an  azure 
dome  in  its  centre  in  imitation  of  the  celestial  vault. 
Here  the  Emperor  announces  his  accession,  prays  for 
rain,  and  offers  an  ox  as  a  burnt  sacrifice  at  the  winter 
solstice — addressing  himself  to  Shang-ti,  the  supreme 
ruler,  "by  whom  kings  reign  and  princes  decree 
justice." 

The  Temple  of  Agriculture,  which  stands  at  a  short 
distance  from  that  just  mentioned,  was  erected  in 
honour  of  the  first  man  who  cultivated  the  earth. 
In  Chinese,  he  has  no  name,  his  title,  Shin-nung 
signifying  the  "divine  husbandman" — a  masculine 
Ceres.  Might  we  not  call  the  place  the  Temple  of 
Cain?  There  the  Emperor  does  honour  to  husbandry 
by  ploughing  a  few  furrows  at  the  vernal  equinox. 
His  example  no  doubt  tends  to  encourage  and  comfort 
his  toiling  subjects. 

Another  temple  associated  with  these  is  that  of 
Mother  Earth,  the  personified  consort  of  Heaven;  but 
it  is  not  in  this  locality.  The  eternal  fitness  of  things 
requires  that  it  should  be  outside  of  the  walls  and  on 
the  north.  It  has  a  square  altar,  because  the  earth 
is  supposed  to  have  "four  comers."  "Heaven  is 
round  and  Earth  square,"  is  the  first  line  of  a  school 
reader  for  boys.  The  Tartar  city  is  laid  out  with  per- 
fect regularity,  and  its  streets  and  alleys  are  all  of  con- 
venient width. 

Passing  from  the  Chinese  city  through  the  Great 
Central  Gate  we  enter  Legation  Street,  so  called  be- 
cause most  of  the  legations  are  situated  on  or  near  it. 
Architecturally  they  make  no  show,  being  of  one 
story,  or  at  most  two  stories,  in  height  and  hidden 


^^  OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


.    lefcoi^n  10  t:obnr«  un  S5.  April  1839. 
seit  2S  April  186^  in  Oim. 
.  geslofben  am  26.  .Si-ptemb«r  1899  in  Vm^tno. 
'   Ein  B&hnbrech«r  chrisUkhen  GUuJtens 

•  ■  uni  f hrisUkher  Kullw.  ' 
Ein  (teutsehei: Fbrscber imfremden  Lande. 


rf.'-:-''^:':'-:^-^ 


TOMB  UF  DK.  ERNST  FABER  IN  TSING-TAU 


PROVINCE  OF  CHIHLI  37 

behind  high  walls.  So  high  and  strong  are  the  walls 
of  the  British  Legation  that  in  the  Boxer  War  of  1900 
it  served  the  whole  community  for  a  fortress,  wherein 
we  sustained  a  siege  of  eight  weeks.  A  marble  obelisk 
near  the  Legation  gate  commemorates  the  siege,  and 
a  marble  gateway  on  a  neighbouring  street  marks  the 
spot  where  Baron  Ketteler  was  shot.  Since  that  war 
a  foreign  quarter  has  been  marked  out,  the  approaches 
to  which  have  been  partially  fortified.  The  streets 
are  now  greatly  improved;  ruined  buildings  have  been 
repaired;  and  the  general  appearance  of  the  old  city 
has  been  altered  for  the  better. 

Two  more  walled  enclosures  have  to  be  passed  before 
we  arrive  at  the  palace.  One  of  them  forms  a  protected 
barrack  or  camping-ground  for  the  palace  guards  and 
other  officials  attendant  on  the  court.  The  other  is  a 
sacred  precinct  shielded  from  vulgar  eyes  and  intrusive 
feet,  and  bears  the  name  "Forbidden  City."  In  the 
year  following  the  flight  of  the  court  these  palaces  were 
guarded  by  foreign  troops,  and  were  thrown  open  to 
foreign  visitors. 

Marble  bridges,  balustrades,  and  stairways  bewilder 
a  stranger.  Dragons,  phoenixes  and  other  imaginary 
monsters  carved  on  doorways  and  pillars  warn  him 
that  he  is  treading  on  sacred  ground.  The  ground, 
though  paved  with  granite,  is  far  from  clean;  and 
the  costly  carvings  within  remind  one  of  the  saying 
of  an  Oriental  monarch,  "The  spider  taketh  hold  with 
her  hands  and  is  in  kings'  houses."  None  of  the  build- 
ings has  more  than  one  story,  but  the  throne-rooms 
and  great  halls  are  so  lofty  as  to  suggest  the  dome  of 
a  cathedral.     The  roofs  are  all  covered  with  tiles  of  a 


38  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

yellow  hue,  a  colour  which  even  princes  are  not  per- 
mitted to  use. 

Separated  from  the  palace  by  a  moat  and  a  wall  is 
Prospect  Hill,  a  charming  elevation  which  serves  as  an 
imperial  garden.  On  the  fall  of  the  city  in  1643  the 
last  of  the  Mings  hanged  himself  there — after  having 
stabbed  his  daughter,  like  another  Virginius,  as  a  last 
proof  of  paternal  affection. 

From  the  gate  of  the  Forbidden  City  to  the  palace 
officials  high  and  low  must  go  on  foot,  unless  His 
Majesty  by  special  favour  confers  the  privilege  of 
riding  on  horseback,  a  distinction  which  is  always 
announced  in  the  Gazette  by  the  statement  that  His 
Majesty  has  "given  a  horse"  to  So-and-So.  No 
trolleys  are  to  be  seen  in  the  streets,  and  four-wheeled 
carriages  are  rare  and  recent.  Carts,  camels,  wheel- 
barrows, and  the  ubiquitous  rickshaw  are  the  means 
of  transport  and  locomotion.  The  canals  are  open 
sewers  never  used  for  boats. 

Not  lacking  in  barbaric  splendour,  as  regards  the 
convenience  of  living  this  famous  capital  will  not 
compare  with  a  country  village  of  the  Western  world. 
On  the  same  parallel  as  Philadelphia,  but  dryer,  hotter, 
and  colder,  the  climate  is  so  superb  that  the  city, 
(though  lacking  a  system  of  sanitation,  has  a  remark- 
ably low  death-rate.  In  1859  I  first  entered  its  gates. 
In  1 863  I  came  here  to  reside.  More  than  any  other  place 
on  earth  it  has  been  to  me  a  home;  and  here  I  am 
not  unlikely  to  close  my  pilgrimage. 

On  my  first  visit,  I  made  use  of  Byron's  lines  on 
Lisbon  to  express  my  impressions  of  Peking.  Though 
there  are  now  some  signs  of  improvement  in  the  city 


OF    THE 

I'NIVERSITY 

OF 


5^ 

t— t 

H 

< 

W 

< 

1-1 


<■ 


P  PROVINCE  OF  CHIHLI  39 

the  quotation  can  hardly  be  considered  as  inapphcable 
at  the  present  time.  Here  it  is  for  the  convenience 
of  the  next  traveller: 

"...   Whoso  entereth  within  this  town, 

That,  sheening  far,  celestial  seems  to  be, 

Disconsolate  will  wander  up  and  down, 

'Mid  many  things  unsightly  to  strange  ee* 

For  hut  and  palace  show  like  filthily: 

The  dingy  denizens  are  rear'd  in  dirt; 

Ne  personage  of  high  or  mean  degree 

Doth  care  for  cleanness  of  surtout  or  shirt.   .   .   " 

{Childe  Harold's  Pilgrimage,  Canto  the  First,  st.  xvii.) 

Returning  to  the  station  we  face  about  for  the  south 
and  take  tickets  for  Paoting-fu.  We  are  on  the  first 
grand  trunk  railway  of  this  empire.  It  might  indeed 
be  described  as  a  vertebral  column  from  which  iron 
roads  will  ere  long  be  extended  laterally  on  either  side, 
like  ribs,  to  support  and  bind  together  the  huge  frame. 
Undertaken  about  twelve  years  ago  it  has  only  recently 
been  completed  as  far  as  Hankow,  about  six  hundred 
miles.  The  last  spike  in  the  bridge  across  the  Yellow 
River  was  driven  in  August,  1905,  and  since  that  time 
I ,  through  trains  have  been  running  from  the  capital  to 

the  banks  of  the  Yang-tse  Kiang. 

This  portion  has  been  constructed  by  a  Belgian 
syndicate,  and  their  task  has  been  admirably  performed.' 
I  wish  I  could  say  as  much  of  the  other  half  (from 
Hankow  to  Canton),  the  contract  for  which  was  given 
to  an  American  company.  After  a  preliminary  survey 
this  company  did  no  work,  but,  under  pretext  of  wait- 
ing for  tranquil  times,  watched  the  fluctuations  of  the 
share  market.     The  whole  enterprise  was  eventually 


It! 


40  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

taken  over  by  a  native  company  opposed  to  foreign 
ownership — at  an  advance  of  300  per  cent.  It  was 
a  clever  deal;  but  the  Americans  sacrificed  the  credit 
and  the  influence  of  their  country,  and  a  grand  oppor- 
tunity was  lost  through  cupidity  and  want  of  patriotism. 

This  iron  highway  is  destined  in  the  near  future  to 
exert  a  mighty  influence  on  people  and  government. 
It  will  bring  the  provinces  together  and  make  them 
feel  their  unity.  It  will  also  insure  that  communi- 
cation between  the  north  and  the  south  shall  not  be 
interrupted  as  it  might  be  were  it  dependent  on  sea 
or  canal.  These  advantages  must  have  been  so  patent 
as  to  overcome  an  inbred  hostility  to  development. 
Instead  of  being  a  danger,  these  railways  are  bound 
to  become  a  source  of  incalculable  strength. 

Paoting-fu  was  the  scene  of  a  sad  tragedy  in  1900, 
and  when  avenging  troops  appeared  on  the  scene, 
and  saw  the  charred  bones  of  missionaries  among  the 
ashes  of  their  dwellings,  they  were  bent  on  destroying  the 
whole  city,  but  a  missionary  who  served  as  guide  begged 
them  to  spare  the  place.  So  grateful  were  the  inhabi- 
tants for  his  kindly  intervention  that  they  bestowed 
on  the  mission  a  large  plot  of  ground — showing  that, 
however  easily  wrought  up,  they  were  not  altogether 
destitute  of  the  better  feelings  of  humanity. 

Continuing  our  journey  through  half  a  dozen  con- 
siderable cities,  at  one  of  which,  Shunteh-fu,  an  Amer- 
ican mission  has  recently  been  opened,  we  reach  the 
borders  of  the  province  of  Honan. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

PROVINCE  OF  HONAN 
A  Great  Bridge — K'ai-fung-fu — Yellow  Jews 

PASSING  the  border  city  of  Weihwei-fu,  we  find 
ourselves  arrested  by  the  Hwang  Ho — ^not  that  we 
experience  any  difficulty  in  reaching  the  other  bank; 
but  we  wish  to  indulge  our  curiosity  in  inspecting  the 
means  of  transit.  It  is  a  bridge,  and  such  a  bridge  as 
has  no  parallel  on  earth.  Five  miles  in  length,  it  is 
longer  than  any  other  bridge  built  for  the  passage  of  a 
river.  It  is  not,  however,  as  has  been  said,  the  longest 
bridge  in  the  world;  the  elevated  railway  of  New  York 
is  a  bridge  of  much  greater  length.  So  are  some  of  the 
bridges  that  carry  railways  across  swamp-lands  on  the 
Pacific  Coast.  Bridges  of  that  sort,  however,  are  of 
comparatively  easy  construction.  They  have  no  re- 
bellious stream  or  treacherous  quicksands  to  contend 
with.  Caesar's  bridge  over  the  Rhine  was  an  achieve- 
ment worthy  to  be  recorded  among  the  victories  of  his 
Gallic  wars;  but  it  was  a  child's  plaything  in  com- 
parison with  the  bridge  over  the  Yellow  River.  Caesar's 
bridge  rested  on  sesquipedalian  beams  of  solid  timber. 
The  Belgian  bridge  is  supported  on  tubular  piles  of 
steel  of  sesquipedalian  diameter  driven  by  steam  or 
screwed  down  into  the  sand  to  a  depth  of  fifty  feet. 

There  have  been  other  bridges  near  this  very  spot 

41 


42  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

with  which  it  might  be  compared.  One  of  them  was 
called  Ta-liang,  the  "Great  Bridge,"  and  gave  name  to 
a  city.  Another  was  Pien-liang,  "The  Bridge  of  Pien," 
one  of  the  names  of  the  present  city  of  K'ai-fung-fu. 
That  bridge  has  long  since  disappeared;  but  the  name 
adheres  to  the  city. 

What  an  unstable  foundation  on  which  to  erect  a 
seat  of  empire!  Yet  the  capital  has  been  located  in  this 
vicinity  more  than  once  or  twice  within  the  last  twenty- 
five  centuries.  The  first  occasion  was  during  the  dy- 
nasty of  Chou  (iioo  B.  c),  when  the  king,  to  be  more 
central,  or  perhaps  dreading  the  incursions  of  the  Tar- 
tars, forsook  his  capital  in  Shensi  and  followed  the 
stream  down  almost  to  the  sea,  braving  the  quicksands 
and  the  floods  rather  than  face  those  terrible  foes. 
Again,  in  the  Sung  period,  it  was  the  seat  of  government 
for  a  century  and  a  half. 

The  safest  refuge  for  a  fugitive  court  which,  once 
established  there,  has  no  reason  to  fear  attack  by  sea 
or  river,  it  is  somewhat  strange  that  in  1900  the 
Empress  Dowager  did  not  direct  her  steps  toward 
K'ai-fung-fu,  instead  of  escaping  to  Si-ngan.  Being, 
however,  herself  a  Tartar,  she  might  have  been  expected 
to  act  in  a  way  contrary  to  precedents  set  by  Chinese 
dynasties.  Obviously,  she  chose  the  latter  as  a  place 
of  refuge  because  it  lay  near  the  borders  of  Tartary. 
It  is  noteworthy  that  a  loyal  governor  of  Honan  at 
that  very  time  prepared  a  palace  for  her  accommo- 
dation in  K'ai-fung-fu,  and  when  the  court  was  invited 
to  return  to  Peking,  he  implored  her  not  to  risk  herself 
in  the  northern  capital. 

Honan  is  a  province  rich  in  agricultural,  and  probably 


«yi 


TOMB  OF  CONFUCIUS  AT  KEWFOW 


PROVINCE  OF  HONAN  43 

in  mineral,  resources,  but  it  has  no  outlet  in  the  way  of 
trade.  What  a  boon  this  railway  is  destined  to  be,  as 
a  channel  of  communication  with  neighbouring 
provinces ! 

I  crossed  the  Yellow  River  in  1866,  but  there  was 
then  no  bridge  of  any  kind.  Two- thirds  of  a  mile  in 
width,  with  a  furious  current,  the  management  of  the 
ferry-boat  was  no  easy  task.  On  that  occasion  an 
object  which  presented  stronger  attractions  than  this 
wonderful  bridge  had  drawn  me  to  K'ai-fung-fu — a 
colony  of  Jews,  a  fragment  of  the  Lost  Tribes  of 
Israel.  As  mentioned  in  a  previous  chapter,  I  had 
come  by  land  over  the  very  track  now  followed  by 
the  railroad,  but  under  conditions  in  strong  contrast 
with  the  luxuries  of  a  railway  carriage — "Alone, 
unfriended,  solitary,  slow,"  I  had  made  my  way 
painfully,  shifting  from  horse  to  cart,  and  sometimes 
compelled  by  the  narrowness  of  a  path  to  descend  to  a 
wheelbarrow.  How  I  longed  for  the  advent  of  the  iron 
horse.  Now  I  have  with  me  a  jovial  company;  and 
we  may  enjoy  the  mental  stimulus  of  an  uninterrupted 
session  of  the  Oriental  Society,  while  making  more 
distance  in  an  hour  than  I  then  made  in  a  day. 

Of  the  condition  of  the  Jews  of  K'ai-fung-fu,  as  I 
found  them,  I  have  given  a  detailed  account  elsewhere.* 
Suffice  it  to  say  here  that  the  so-called  colony  consisted 
of  about  four  hundred  persons,  belonging  to  seven 
families  or  clans.  Undermined  by  a  flood  of  the  Yellow 
River,  their  synagogue  had  become  ruinous,  and, 
being  unable  to  repair  it,  they  had  disposed  of  its 
timbers  to  relieve  the  pressure  of  their  dire  poverty. 

*  See  "  Cycle  of  Cathay,"  Revell  &  Co.,  New  York. 


44  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

Nothing  remained  but  the  vacant  space,  marked  by 
a  single  stone  recording  the  varying  fortunes  of  these 
forlorn  Israelites.  It  avers  that  their  remoter  an- 
cestors arrived  in  China  by  way  of  India  in  the  Han 
dynasty,  before  the  Christian  era,  and  that  the  founders 
of  this  particular  colony  found  their  way  to  K'ai-fung- 
fu  in  the  T'ang  dynasty  about  800  a.  d.  It  also  gives 
an  outline  of  their  Holy  Faith,  showing  that,  in  all 
their  wanderings,  they  had  not  forsaken  the  God  of 
their  fathers.  They  still  possessed  some  rolls  of  the 
Law,  written  in  Hebrew,  on  sheepskins,  but  they  no 
longer  had  a  rabbi  to  expound  them.  They  had  forgot- 
ten the  sacred  tongue,  and  some  of  them  had  wandered 
into  the  fold  of  Mohammed,  whose  creed  resembled  their 
own.     Some  too  had  embraced  the  religion  of  Buddha. 

My  report  was  listened  to  with  much  interest  by 
the  rich  Jews  of  Shanghai,  but  not  one  of  them  put 
his  hand  in  his  pocket  to  rebuild  the  ruined  synagogue; 
and  without  that  for  a  rallying-place  the  colony  must 
ere  long  fade  away,  and  be  absorbed  in  the  surrounding 
heathenism,  or  be  led  to  embrace  Christianity. 

I  now  learn  that  the  Jews  of  Shanghai  have  manifested 
enough  interest  to  bring  a  few  of  their  youth  to  that 
port  for  instruction  in  the  Hebrew  language.  Also 
that  some  of  these  K*ai-fung-fu  Jews  are  frequent 
attendants  in  Christian  chapels,  which  have  now  been 
opened  in  that  city.  To  my  view,  the  resuscitation 
of  that  ancient  colony  would  be  as  much  of  a  miracle  as 
the  return  from  captivity  in  the  days  of  Cyrus. 


TEMPLE  0F  CONFUCIUS 


Of    THE 

UWIVERSITY 

OF 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE  RIVER  PROVINCES 

Hupeh — Hankow — Hanyang  Iron  Works — A  Centre  of 
Missionary  A ctivity — Hunan — Kiangsi — Anhwei — 
Native  Province  of  Li  Hung  Chang 

BY  THE  term '  *  river  provinces ' '  are  to  be  understood 
those  provinces  of  central  and  western  China 
which  are  made  accessible  to  intercourse  and  trade 
by  means  of  the  Yang-tse  Kiang. 

Pursuing  our  journey,  in  twelve  hours  by  rail  we 
reach  the  frontier  of  Hupeh.  At  that  point  we  see 
above  us  a  fortification  perched  on  the  side  of  a  lofty 
hill  which  stands  beyond  the  line.  At  a  height  more 
than  double  that  of  this  crenelated  wall  is  a  summer 
resort  of  foreigners  from  Hankow  and  other  parts  of 
the  interior.  I  visited  this  place  in  1905.  In  Chinese, , 
the  plateau  on  which  it  stands  is  called,  from  a  pro- 
jecting rock,  the  "Rooster's  Crest";  shortened  into 
the  more  expressive  name,  the  "Roost,"  it  is  suggest- 
ive of  the  repose  of  summer.  It  presents  a  magnificent 
prospect,  extending  over  a  broad  belt  of  both  provinces. 

Six  hours  more  and  we  arrive  in  Hankow,  which  is 
one  of  three  cities  built  at  the  junction  of  the  Han  and 
the  Yang-tse,  the  Tripolis  of  China,  a  tripod  of  empire, 
the  hub  of  the  universe,  as  the  Chinese  fondly  regard 
it.     The  other  two  cities  are  Wuchang,   the  capital 

45 


46  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

of  the  viceroyalty,  and  Hanyang,  on  the  opposite 
bank  of  the  river. 

In  Hankow  one  beholds  a  Shanghai  on  a  smaUer 
scale,  and  in  the  other  two  cities  the  eye  is  struck  by 
indications  of  the  change  which  is  coming  over  the 
externals  of  Chinese  life. 

At  Hanyang,  which  is  reached  by  a  bridge,  may  be 
seen  an  extensive  and  well-appointed  system  of  iron- 
works, daily  turning  out  large  quantities  of  steel 
rails  for  the  continuation  of  the  railway.  It  also 
produces  large  quantities  of  iron  ordnance  for  the 
contingencies  of  war.  This  is  the  pet  enterprise  of 
the  enlightened  Viceroy  Chang  Chi-tung;  but  on  the 
other  side  of  the  Yang-tse  we  have  cheering  evidence 
that  he  has  not  confined  his  reforms  to  transportation 
and  the  army.  There,  on  the  south  bank,  you  may 
see  the  long  walls  and  tall  chimneys  of  numerous 
manufacturing  establishments — cotton-mills,  silk  fila- 
tures, rope- walks,  glass-works,  tile- works,  powder- 
works — all  designed  to  introduce  the  arts  of  the  West, 
and  to  wage  an  industrial  war  with  the  powers  of 
Christendom.  There,  too,  in  a  pretty  house  over- 
looking the  Great  River,  I  spent  three  years  as  aid  to 
the  viceroy  in  educational  work.  In  the  heart  of 
China,  it  was  a  watch-tower  from  which  I  could  look 
up  and  down  the  river  and  study  the  condition  of 
these  inland  provinces. 

This  great  centre  was  early  preempted  by  the 
pioneers  of  missionary  enterprise.  Here  Griffith  John 
set  up  the  banner  of  the  cross  forty  years  ago  and  by 
indefatigable  and  not  unfruitful  labours  earned  for 
himself  the  name  of  "the  Apostle  of  Central  China." 


CHEFOO :  CITY  AND  HARBOUR 


CHEFOO  HILL 


THE  RIVER  PROVINCES  47 

In  addition  he  has  founded  a  college  for  the  training 
of  native  preachers.  The  last  year  was  the  jubilee 
of  his  arrival  in  the  empire.  Here,  too,  came  David 
Hill,  a  saintly  man  combining  the  characters  of  St. 
Paul  and  of  John  Howard,  as  one  of  the  pioneers  of 
the  churches  of  Great  Britain.  These  leaders  have 
been  followed  by  a  host  who,  if  less  distinguished, 
have  perhaps  accomplished  more  for  the  advancement 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Christ.  Without  the  cooperation 
of  such  agencies  all  reformatory  movements  like  those 
initiated  by  the  viceroy  must  fall  short  of  elevating 
the  people  to  the  level  of  Christian  civilisation. 

The  London  Mission,  the  English  Wesleyans,  and 
the  American  Episcopalians,  all  have  flourishing  sta- 
tions at  Wuchang.  The  Boone  school,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  last-named  society,  is  an  admirable 
institution,  and  takes  rank  with  the  best  colleges  in 
China. 

At  Hankow  the  China  Inland  Mission  is  represented 
by  a  superintendent  and  a  home  for  missionaries  in 
transit.  At  that  home  the  Rev.  J.  Hudson  Taylor, 
the  founder  of  that  great  society,  whom  I  call  the  Loyola 
of  Protestant  missions,  spent  a  few  days  in  1906;  and 
there  Dr.  John  and  I  sat  with  him  for  a  group  of  the 
"Three  Senior  Missionaries"  in  China. 

The  river  provinces  may  be  divided  into  lower  and 
upper,  the  dividing-line  being  at  Ichang  near  the  gorges 
of  the  Yang-tse.  Hupeh  and  Hunan,  Kiangsi  and 
Anhwei  occupy  the  lower  reach;  Szechuen,  Kweichau, 
and  Yiinnan,  the  upper  one.  The  first  two  form  one 
viceregal  district,  with  a  population  exceeding  that 
of  any  European  country  excepting  Russia. 


48  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

Hupeh  signifies  " north  of  the  lake" ;  Hunan,  "  south 
of  the  lake" — the  great  lake  of  Tungting  lying  between 
the  two.  Hupeh  has  been  open  to  trade  and  residence 
for  over  forty  years ;  but  the  sister  province  was  long 
hermetically  sealed  against  the  footprints  of  the  white 
man.  Twenty  or  even  ten  years  ago  to  venture  within 
its  limits  would  have  cost  a  European  his  life.  Its 
capital,  Changsha,  was  the  seat  of  an  anti-foreign 
propaganda  from  which  issued  masses  of  foul  literature; 
but  the  lawless  hostility  of  the  people  has  been  held 
in  check  by  the  judicious  firmness  of  the  present 
viceroy,  and  that  city  is  now  the  seat  of  numerous 
mission  bodies  which  are  vying  with  each  other  in  their 
efforts  to  diffuse  light  and  knowledge.  It  is  also 
open  to  commerce  as  a  port  of  trade. 

One  of  the  greatest  distinctions  of  the  province  is 
its  production  of  brave  men,  one  of  the  bravest 
of  whom  was  the  first  Marquis  Tseng  who,  at 
the  head  of  a  patriotic  force  from  his  native  province, 
recaptured  the  city  of  Nanking  and  put  an  end  to  the 
chaotic  government  of  the  Taiping  rebels — a  service 
which  has  ever  since  been  recognised  by  the  Chinese 
Government  in  conferring  the  viceroyalty  of  Nanking 
on  a  native  of  Hunan. 

Lying  to  the  south  of  the  river,  is  the  province  of 
Kiangsi,  containing  the  Poyang  Lake,  next  in  size  to  the 
Tungting.  Above  its  entrance  at  Kiukiang  rises  a 
lone  mountain  which  bears  the  name  of  Ruling. 
Beautifully  situated,  and  commanding  a  wide  view 
of  lake  and  river,  its  sides  are  dotted  with  pretty 
cottages,  erected  as  summer  resorts  for  people  from  all 
the  inland  ports.     Here  may  be  seen  the  flags  of  many 


THE  RIVER  PROVINCES  49 

nations,  and  here  the  hard- worked  missionary  finds 
rest  and  recreation,  without  idleness ;  for  he  finds  clubs 
for  the  discussion  of  politics  and  philosophy,  and 
libraries  which  more  than  supply  the  absence  of  his 
own.  Just  opposite  the  entrance  to  the  lake  stands 
the  "  Little  Orphan,"  a  vine-clad  rock  200  feet  in  height, 
with  a  small  temple  on  the  top.  It  looks  like  a  frag- 
ment torn  from  the  mountain-side  and  planted  in  the 
bosom  of  the  stream.  Fancy  fails  to  picture  the 
convulsion  of  which  the  "Little  Orphan"  is  the 
monument. 

Farther  down  is  the  province  of  Anhwei  which  takes 
its  name  from  its  chief  two  cities,  Anking  and  Weichou. 
In  general  resembling  Kiangsi,  it  has  two  flourishing 
ports  on  the  river,  Anking,  the  capital,  and  Wuhu. 
Of  the  people  nothing  noteworthy  is  to  be  observed, 
save  that  they  are  unusually  turbulent,  and  their 
lawless  spirit  has  not  been  curbed  by  any  strong  hand 
like  that  of  the  viceroy  at  Wuchang.*  The  province 
is  distinguished  for  its  production  of  great  men,  of 
whom  Li  Hung  Chang  was  one. 

*  This  was  written  before  the  Nanchang  riot  of  March,  1906. 


CHAPTER  X 

PROVINCES  OF  THE  UPPER  YANG-TSE 

A  Perilous  Passage — Szechuen — Kweichau,   the  Poorest 
Province  in  China — Yunnan — Tribes  of  Aborigines 

THUS  far  our  voyage  of  exploration,  like  one  of 
Cook's  tours,  has  been  personally  conducted. 
From  this  point,  however,  I  must  depend  upon  the 
experience  of  others:  the  guide  himself  must  seek 
a  guide  to  conduct  him  through  the  remaining  portions 
of  the  empire. 

We  enter  the  Upper  Yang-tse  by  a  long  and  tor- 
tuous passage  through  which  the  "Great  River"  rushes 
with  a  force  and  a  roar  like  the  cataracts  of  the  Rhine, 
only  on  a  vastly  greater  scale.  In  some  bygone  age 
volcanic  forces  tore  asunder  a  mountain  range,  and 
the  waters  of  the  great  stream  furrowed  out  a  channel; 
but  the  obstructing  rocks,  so  far  from  being  worn 
away,  remain  as  permanent  obstacles  to  steam  naviga- 
tion and  are  a  cause  of  frequent  shipwrecks.  Yet, 
undeterred  by  dangers  that  eclipse  Scylla  andCharybdis, 
the  laborious  Chinese  have  for  centuries  past  carried 
on  an  immense  traffic  through  this  perilous  passage. 
In  making  the  ascent  their  junks  are  drawn  against 
the  current  by  teams  of  coolies,  tens  or  hundreds  of 
the  latter  being  harnessed  to  the  tow-lines  of  one  boat 
and  driven  like  a  bullock  train  in  South  Africa.     Slow 

so 


,^»RAja^ 


UHl 


OF   THE 

VERSITY 

OF 


o 
z 

--H 

a, 

[4 
u 
< 

< 

W 

33 
H 

O 


> 


PROVINCES  OF  THE  UPPER  YANG-TSE    51 

and  difficult  is  the  ascent,  but  swift  and  perilous  the 
downward  passage. 

No  doubt  engineering  may  succeed  in  removing 
some  of  the  obstacles  and  in  minifying  the  dangers 
of  this  passage.  Steam,  too,  may  supply  another 
mode  of  traction  to  take  the  place  of  these  teams  of 
men.  A  still  revolution  is  in  prospect,  namely  a  ship 
canal  or  railway.  The  latter,  perhaps,  might  be  made 
to  lift  the  junks  bodily  out  of  the  water  and  transport 
them  beyond  the  rapids.  Two  cities,  however,  would 
suffer  somewhat  by  this  change  in  the  mode  of  naviga- 
tion, namely,  Ichang  at  the  foot  and  Chungking  at  the 
head  of  the  rapids.  The  latter  is  the  chief  river  port 
of  Szechuen,  a  province  having  four  times  the  average 
area. 

The  great  province  of  Szechuen,  if  it  only  had  the 
advantages  of  a  seacoast,  would  take  the  lead  in  im- 
portance. As  it  is,  it  is  deemed  sufficiently  important, 
like  Chihli,  to  have  a  viceroy  of  its  own.  The  name 
signifies  the  "four  rivers,"  and  the  province  has  as 
many  ranges  of  mountains.  One  of  them,  the  Omeshan, 
is  celebrated  for  its  beauty  and  majesty.  The  moun- 
tains give  the  province  a  great  variety  of  climate,  and 
the  rivers  supply  means  of  transportation  and  irriga- 
tion. Its  people,  too,  are  more  uniform  in  language 
and  character  than  those  of  most  other  regions.  Their 
language  partakes  of  the  Northern  mandarin.  Near 
the  end  of  the  Ming  dynasty  the  whole  population  is 
said  to  have  been  destroyed  in  the  fratricidal  wars 
of  that  sanguinary  period.  The  population  accordingly 
is  comparatively  sparse,  and  the  cities  are  said  to 
present  a  new  and  prosperous  aspect.     Above  Szechuen 


52  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

lie  the  two  provinces  of  Kweichau  and  Yunnan, 
forming  one  viceroy  alt  y  under  the  name  of  Yiinkwei. 
Kweichau  has  the  reputation  of  being  the  poorest 
province  in  China,  with  a  very  sparse  population, 
nearly  one-half  of  whom  are  aborigines,  called  shans, 
lolos,  and  miaotzes. 

Yunnan  (signifying  not  "cloudy  south,"  but  "south 
of  the  cloudy  mountains")  is  next  in  area  to  Szechuen. 
Its  resources  are  as  yet  undeveloped,  and  it  certainly 
has  a  great  future.  Its  climate,  if  it  may  be  said  to 
have  one,  is  reputed  to  be  unhealthful,  and  among 
its  hills  are  many  deep  gorges  which  the  Chinese  say 
are  full  of  chang  chi,  "poisonous  gases"  which  are 
fatal  to  men  and  animals — like  the  Grotto  del  Cane  in 
Italy.  But  these  gorges  and  cliffs  abound  in  better 
things  also.  They  are  rich  in  unexploited  coal  measures 
and  they  contain  also  many  mines  of  the  purest  copper 
ore.  The  river  that  washes  its  borders  here  bears  the 
name  of  Kinsha,  the  river  of  "golden  sands."  Some 
of  its  rivers  have  the  curious  peculiarity  of  flowing 
the  reverse  way,  that  is,  to  the  west  and  south  instead 
of  toward  the  eastern  sea.  The  Chinese  accordingly 
call  the  province  "Tiensheng"  the  country  of  the 
"converse  streams." 

Within  the  borders  of  Yunnan  there  are  said  to  be 
more  than  a  hundred  tribes  of  aborigines  all  more  or 
less  akin  to  those  of  Kweichau  and  Burma,  but  each 
imder  its  own  separate  chief.  Some  of  them  are 
fine-looking,  vigorous  people;  but  the  Chinese  describe 
them  as  living  in  a  state  of  utter  savagery.  Mis- 
sionaries, however,  have  recently  begun  work  for 
them;  and  we  may  hope  that,  as  for  the  Karens  of 


-■■    THE 

yrJIVERSITY 

OF 


PROVINCES  OF  THE  UPPER  YANG-TSE    53 

Burma,  a  better  day  will  soon  dawn  on  the  Yunnan 
aborigines. 

The  French,  having  colonies  on  the  border,  are 
naturally  desirous  of  exploiting  the  provinces  of  this 
southern  belt,  and  China  is  intensely  suspicious  of 
encroachment  from  that  quarter. 


CHAPTER  XI 

NORTHWESTERN   PROVINCES 

Shansi — Shensi — Earliest  Known  Home  of  the  Chinese 

— Kansuh 

OF  THE  three  northwestern  provinces,  the  richest 
is  Shansi.  More  favoured  in  cHmate  and  soil 
than  the  other  members  of  the  group,  its  population 
is  more  dense.  Divided  from  Chihli  by  a  range  of 
hills,  its  whole  surface  is  hilly,  but  not  mountainous. 
The  highlands  give  variety  to  its  temperature — con- 
densing the  moisture  and  supplying  water  for  irriga- 
tion. The  valleys  are  extremely  fertile,  and  of  them 
it  may  be  said  in  the  words  of  Job,  "As  for  the  earth, 
out  of  it  Cometh  bread:  and  underneath  it  is  turned 
up  as  it  were  fire."  Not  only  do  the  fields  yield  fine 
crops  of  wheat  and  millet,  but  there  are  extensive 
coal  measures  of  excellent  quality.  Iron  ore  also  is 
found  in  great  abundance.  Mining  enterprises  have 
accordingly  been  carried  on  from  ancient  times,  and 
they  have  now,  with  the  advent  of  steam,  acquired 
a  fresh  impetus.  It  follows,  of  course,  that  the  prov- 
ince is  prolific  of  bankers.  Shansi  bankers  monopo- 
lise the  business  of  finance  in  all  the  adjacent  prov  nces. 
Next  on  the  west  comes  the  province  of  Shensi, 
from  shen,  a  "strait  or  pass"  (not  shan  a  "hill"),  and 
si,  "west." 

54 


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NORTHWESTERN  PROVINCES  55 

Here  was  the  earliest  home  of  the  Chinese  race  of 
which  there  is  any  record.  On  the  Yellow  River, 
which  here  forms  the  boundary  of  two  provinces, 
stands  the  city  of  Si-ngan  where  the  Chou  dynasty 
set  up  its  throne  in  the  twelfth  century  b.  c.  Since 
that  date  many  dynasties  have  made  it  the  seat  of 
empire.  Their  palaces  have  disappeared;  but  most 
of  them  have  left  monumental  inscriptions  from  which 
a  connected  history  might  be  extracted.  To  us  the 
most  interesting  monument  is  a  stone,  erected  about 
800  A.D.  to  commemorate  the  introduction  of  Christian- 
ity by  some  Nestorian  missionaries  from  western  Asia. 

The  province  of  Kansuh  is  comparatively  barren. 
Its  boundaries  extend  far  out  into  regions  peopled 
by  Mongol  tribes;  and  the  neighbourhood  of  great 
deserts  gives  it  an  arid  climate  unfavourable  to  agricul- 
ture. Many  of  its  inhabitants  are  immigrants  from 
Central  Asia  and  profess  the  Mohammedan  faith. 
It  is  almost  surrounded  by  the  Yellow  River,  like  a 
picture  set  in  a  gilded  frame,  reminding  one  of  that 
river  of  paradise  which  "  encompasseth  the  whole 
land  of  Havilah  where  there  is  gold."  Whether 
there  is  gold  in  Kansuh  we  have  yet  to  learn;  but  no 
doubt  some  grains  of  the  precious  metal  might  be 
picked  up  amongst  its  shifting  sands. 


CHAPTER  XII 

OUTLYING   TERRITORIES 

Manchuria — Mongolia — Turkestan — Tibet,  the  Roof  of 
the  World — Journey  of  Hue  and  Gabet 

BEYOND  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Great  Wall, 
bounded  on  the  west  by  Mongolia,  on  the  north 
by  the  Amur,  on  the  east  by  the  Russian  seaboard, 
and  on  the  south  by  Korea  and  the  Gulf  of  Pechili, 
lies  the  home  of  the  Manchus — the  race  now  dominant 
in  the  Chinese  Empire.  China  claims  it,  just  as  Great 
Britain  claimed  Normandy,  because  her  conquerors 
came  from  that  region;  and  now  that  two  of  her  neigh- 
bours have  exhausted  themselves  in  fighting  for  it, 
she  will  take  good  care  that  neither  of  them  shall 
filch  the  jewel  from  her  crown. 

That  remarkable  achievement,  the  conquest  of 
China  by  a  few  thousand  semi-civilised  Tartars,  is 
treated  in  the  second  part  of  this  work. 

Manchuria  consists  of  three  regions  now  denominated 
provinces,  Shengking,  Kairin,  and  Helungkiang.  They 
are  all  under  one  governor-general  whose  seat  is  at 
Mukden,  a  city  sacred  in  the  eyes  of  every  Manchu, 
because  there  are  the  tombs  of  the  fathers  of  the 
dynasty. 

The  native  population  of  Manchuria  having  been 

drafted   off  to   garrison   and  colonise   the  conquered 

56 


OUTLYING  TERRITORIES  57 

country,  their  deserted  districts  were  thrown  open  to 
Chinese  settlers.  The  population  of  the  three  provinces 
is  mainly  Chinese,  and,  assimilated  in  government  to 
those  of  China,  they  are  reckoned  as  completing  the 
number  of  twenty-one.  Opulent  in  grain-fields,  forests, 
and  minerals,  with  every  facility  for  commerce,  no 
part  of  the  empire  has  a  brighter  future.  So  thinly 
peopled  is  its  northern  portion  that  it  continues  to  be 
a  vast  hunting-ground  which  supplies  the  Chinese 
market  with  sables  and  tiger-skins  besides  other 
peltries.  The  tiger-skins  are  particularly  valuable 
as  having  longer  and  richer  fur  than  those  of  Bengal. 

Of  the  Manchus  as  a  people,  I  shall  speak  later  on.* 
Those  remaining  in  their  original  habitat  are  extremely 
rude  and  ignorant;  yet  even  these  hitherto  neglected 
regions  are  now  coming  under  the  enlightening  in- 
fluence of  a  system  of  government  schools. 

Mongolia,  the  largest  division  of  Tartary,  if  not  of 
the  Empire,  is  scarcely  better  known  than  the  moun- 
tain regions  of  Tibet,  a  large  portion  of  its  area  being 
covered  with  deserts  as  uninviting  and  as  seldom  visited 
as  the  African  Sahara.  One  route,  however,  has  been 
well  trodden  by  Russian  travellers,  namely,  that  lying 
between   Kiachta   and   Peking. 

In  the  reign  of  Kanghi  the  Russians  were  granted 
the  privilege  of  establishing  an  ecclesiastical  mission 
to  minister  to  a  Cossack  garrison  which  the  Emperor 
had  captured  at  Albazin  trespassing  on  his  grounds. 
Like  another  Nebuchadnezzar,  he  transplanted  them 
to  the  soil  of  China.     He  also  permitted  the  Russians 


*  Part  II,  page  140  and  142;  part  III,  pages  267 — 280 


58  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

to  bring  tribute  to  the  "  Son  of  Heaven "  once  in  ten 
years.  That  implied  a  right  to  trade,  so  that  the 
Russians,  Hke  other  envoys,  in  Chinese  phrase  "  came 
lean  and  went  away  fat."  But  they  were  not  allowed 
to  leave  the  beaten  track:  they  were  merchants,  not 
travellers.  Not  till  the  removal  of  the  taboo  within 
the  last  half-century  have  these  outlying  dependencies 
been  explored  by  men  like  Richthofen  and  Sven  Hedin. 
Formerly  the  makers  of  maps  garnished  those  unknown 
regions 

"With  caravans  for  want  of  towns." 

Sooth  to  say,  there  are  no  towns,  except  Urga,  a 
shrine  for  pilgrimage,  the  residence  of  a  living  Buddha, 
and  Kiachta  and  Kalgan,  terminal  points  of  the  caravan 
route  already  referred  to. 

Kiachta  is  a  double  town — one-half  of  it  on  each 
side  of  the  Russo-Chinese  boundary — presenting  in 
striking  contrast  the  magnificence  of  a  Russian  city 
and  the  poverty  and  filth  of  a  Tartar  encampment. 
The  whole  country  is  called  in  Chinese  "the  land  of 
grass."  Its  inhabitants  have  sheepfolds  and  cattle 
ranches,  but  neither  fields  nor  houses,  unless  tents  and 
temporary  huts  may  be  so  designated.  To  this  day, 
nomadic  in  their  habits,  they  migrate  from  place  to 
place  with  their  flocks  and  herds  as  the  exigencies  of 
water  and  pasturage  may  require. 

Lines  of  demarcation  exist  for  large  tracts  belonging 
to  a  tribe,  but  no  minor  divisions  such  as  individual 
holdings.  The  members  of  a  clan  all  enjoy  their  graz- 
ing range  in  common,  and  hold  themselves  ready  to 
fight  for  the  rights  of  their  chieftain.  Bloody  feuds 
lasting  for  generations,  such  as  would  rival  those  of 


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OUTLYING  TERRITORIES  59 

the  Scottish  clans,  are  not  of  infrequent  occurrence. 
Their  Manchu  overlord  treats  these  tribal  conflicts 
with  sublime  indifference,  as  he  does  the  village  wars  in 
China. 

The  Mongolian  chiefs,  or  "princes"  as  they  are 
called,  are  forty-eight  in  number.  The  "forty-eight 
princes  "  is  a  phrase  as  familiar  to  the  Chinese  ear  as 
the  "  eighteen  provinces  "  is  to  ours.  Like  the>Manchus 
they  are  arranged  in  groups  under  eight  banners. 
Some  of  them  took  part  in  the  conquest,  but 
the  Manchus  are  too  suspicious  to  permit  them 
to  do  garrison  duty  in  the  Middle  Kingdom,  lest  the 
memories  of  Kublai  Khan  and  his  glory  should  be 
awakened.  They  are,  however,  held  liable  to  military 
service.  Seng  Ko  Lin  Sin  ("Sam  CoUinson"  as  the 
British  dubbed  him) ,  a  Lama  prince,  headed  the  north- 
ern armies  against  the  Tai-ping  rebels  and  afterwards 
suffered  defeat  at  the  hands  of  the  British  and  French 
before  the  gates  of  Peking. 

In  the  winter  the  Mongol  princes  come  with  their 
clansmen  to  revel  in  the  delights  of  Cambalu,  the  city 
of  the  great  Khan,  as  they  have  continued  to  call 
Peking  ever  since  the  days  of  Kublai,  whose  magnifi- 
cence has  been  celebrated  by  Marco  Polo.  Their 
camping-ground  is  the  Mongolian  Square  which  is 
crowded  with  tabernacles  built  of  bamboo  and  covered 
with  felt.  In  a  sort  of  bazaar  may  be  seen  pyramids 
of  butter  and  cheese,  two  commodities  that  are  abom- 
inations to  the  Chinese  of  the  south,  but  are  much 
appreciated  by  Chinese  in  Peking  as  well  as  by  the 
Manchus.  One  may  see  also  mountains  of  venison 
perfectly  fresh;  the  frozen  carcasses  of  "yellow  sheep" 


6o  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

(really  not  sheep,  but  antelopes) ;  then  come  wild  boars 
in  profusion,  along  with  badgers,  hares,  and  troops  of 
live  dogs — the  latter  only  needing  to  be  wild  to  make 
them  edible.  This  will  give  some  faint  idea  of  Mon- 
golia's contribution  to  the  luxuries  of  the  metropolis. 
Devout  Buddhist  as  he  is,  the  average  Mongol  deems 
abstinence  from  animal  food  a  degree  of  sanctity 
unattainable  by  him, 

Mongols  of  the  common  classes  are  clad  in  dirty 
sheepskins.  Their  gentry  and  priesthood  dress  them- 
selves in  the  spoils  of  wolf  or  fox — more  costly  but  not 
more  clean.  Furs,  felt,  and  woollen  fabrics  of  the 
coarsest  texture  may  also  be  noticed.  Raiment  of 
camel's  hair,  strapped  with  a  leathern  girdle  after 
the  manner  of  John  the  Baptist,  may  be  seen  any  day, 
and  the  wearers  are  not  regarded  as  objects  of 
commiseration. 

Their  camel,  too,  is  wonderfully  adapted  to  its 
habitat.  Provided  with  two  humps,  it  carries  a  natural 
saddle;  and,  clothed  in  long  wool,  yellow,  brown  or 
black,  it  looks  in  winter  a  lordly  beast.  Its  fleece  is 
never  shorn,  but  is  shed  in  summer.  At  that  season 
the  poor  naked  animal  is  the  most  pitiable  of  creatures. 
In  the  absence  of  railways  and  carriage  roads,  it  fills 
the  place  of  the  ship  of  the  desert  and  performs  the 
heaviest  tasks,  such  as  the  transporting  of  coals  and 
salt.  Most  docile  of  slaves,  at  a  word  from  its  master 
it  kneels  down  and  quietly  accepts  its  burden. 

At  Peking  there  is  a  lamasary  where  four  hundred 
Mongol  monks  are  maintained  in  idleness  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  Emperor.  Their  manners  are  those  of 
highwaymen.     They  have  been  known  to  lay  rough 


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OUTLYING  TERRITORIES  6i 

hands  on  visitors  in  order  to  extort  a  charitable  dole; 
and,  if  rumour  may  be  trusted,  their  morals  are  far 
from  exemplary. 

My  knowledge  of  the  Mongols  is  derived  chiefly  from 
what  I  have  seen  of  them  in  Peking.  I  have  also  had 
a  glimpse  of  their  country  at  Kalgan,  beyond  the 
Great  Wall.  A  few  lines  from  a  caravan  song  by  the 
Rev.  Mark  Williams  give  a  picture  of  a  long  journey 
by  those  slow  coaches: 

"Inching  along,  we  are  inching  along, 
At  the  pace  of  a  snail,  we  are  inching  along, 
Our  horses  are  hardy,  our  camels  are  strong, 
We  all  shall  reach  Urga  by  inching  along. 

"The  things  that  are  common,  all  men  will  despise; 
But  these  in  the  desert  we  most  highly  prize. 
For  water  is  worth  more  than  huge  bags  of  gold 
And  argols  than  diamonds  of  value  untold." 

— A  Flight  for  Life,  Pilgrim  Press,  Boston. 

Politically  Turkestan  is  not  Mongolia,  but  Tamer- 
lane, though  bom  there,  was  a  Mongol.  His  descend- 
ants were  the  Moguls  of  India.  At  different  epochs 
peoples  called  Turks  and  Huns  have  wandered  over 
the  Mongolian  plateau,  and  Mongols  have  swept  over 
Turkestan.  To  draw  a  line  of  demarcation  is  neither 
€asy  nor  important.  In  the  Turkestan  of  to-day  the 
majority  of  the  people  follow  the  prophet  of  Mecca. 
Russia  has  absorbed  most  of  the  khanates,  and  has 
tried  more  than  once  to  encroach  on  portions  belonging 
to  China.  In  one  instance  she  was  foiled  and  com- 
pelled to  disgorge  by  the  courage  of  Viceroy  Chang, 
a  story  which  I  reserve  for  the  sequel.  The  coveted 
region  was  Hi,  and  Russia's  pretext  for  crossing  the 


62  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

boundary  was  the  chronic  state  of  warfare  in  which 
the  inhabitants  existed. 

Tibet  is  the  land  of  the  Grand  Lama.  Is  it  merely 
tributary  or  is  it  a  portion  of  the  Chinese  Empire? 
This  is  a  question  that  has  been  warmly  agitated  dur- 
ing the  last  two  years — ^brought  to  the  front  by  Colonel 
Younghusband's  expedition  and  by  a  treaty  made 
in  Lhasa.  Instead  of  laying  their  complaints  before 
the  court  of  Peking,  the  Indian  Government  chose  to 
settle  matters  on  the  spot,  ignoring  the  authority  of 
China.  Naturally  China  has  been  provoked  to  in- 
struct her  resident  at  Lhasa  to  maintain  her  rights. 

A  presumptive  claim  might  be  based  on  the  fact 
that  the  Grand  Lama  took  refuge  at  Urga,  where  he 
remained  until  the  Empress  Dowager  ordered  him  to 
return  to  his  abandoned  post.  China  has  always  had 
a  representative  at  his  court;  but  his  function  would 
appear  to  be  that  of  a  political  spy  rather  than  an  over- 
seer, governor,  or  even  adviser.  Chinese  influence 
in  Tibet  is  nearly  nil.  For  China  to  assert  authority 
by  interference  and  to  make  herself  responsible  for 
Tibet's  shortcomings  would  be  a  questionable  policy, 
against  which  two  wars  ought  to  be  a  sufficient  warn- 
ing. She  was  involved  with  France  by  her  inter- 
ference in  Tongking  and  with  Japan  by  interference  in 
Korea.  Too  much  intermeddling  in  Tibet  might 
easily  embroil  her  with  Great  Britain. 

In  one  sense  the  Buddhist  pope  may  justly  claim  to 
be  the  highest  of  earthly  potentates.  No  other  sits 
on  a  throne  at  an  equal  elevation  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  Like  Melchizedeck,  he  is  without  father  or 
mother — each  occupant  of  the  throne  being  a  fresh 


PEKING;   OLD  EXAMIXATIOX  HALL,  STALLS  FOR  STl'DEXTS.  AXD  WATCH-TOWER 


OLD  UXIVERSITY,  PEKING 


OF    THE  \ 

UNIVERSITY  j 


OF 


OUTLYING  TERRITORIES  63 

incarnation  of  Buddha.  The  signs  of  Buddhaship  are 
known  only  to  the  initiated;  but  they  are  supposed 
to  consist  in  the  recognition  of  places,  persons,  and 
apparel.     These  lamas  never  die  of  old  age. 

While  in  other  parts  of  the  Empire  polygamy  pre- 
vails for  those  who  can  afford  it,  in  Tibet  polyandry 
crops  up.  Which  is  the  more  offensive  to  good  morals 
we  need  not  decide;  but  is  it  not  evident  that 
Confucianism  shows  its  weakness  on  one  side  as 
Buddhism  does  on  the  other?  A  people  that  tol- 
erates either  or  both  hardly  deserves  to  be  re- 
garded as  civilised. 

The  Chinese  call  Tibet  the  "roof  of  the  world,"  and 
most  of  it  is  as  barren  as  the  roof  of  a  house.  Still  the 
roof,  though  producing  nothing,  collects  water  to  irri- 
gate a  garden.  Tibet  is  the  mother  of  great  rivers,  and 
she  feeds  them  from  her  eternal  snows.  On  her  high- 
lands is  a  lake  or  cluster  of  lakes  which  the  Chinese 
describe  as  Sing  Su  Hat,  the  "sea  of  stars."  From  this 
the  Yellow  River  takes  its  rise  and  perhaps  the  Yang- 
tse  Kiang.  A  Chinese  legend  says  that  Chang  Chien 
poled  a  raft  up  to  the  source  of  the  Yellow  River  and 
found  himself  in  the  Milky  Way,  Tienho,  the  "River 
of  Heaven." 

Fifty  years  ago  two  intrepid  French  missionaries. 
Hue  and  Gabet,  made  their  way  to  Lhasa,  but  they 
were  not  allowed  to  remain  there.  The  Chinese  resi- 
dents made  them  prisoners,  under  pretext  of  giving 
them  protection,  and  sent  them  to  the  seacoast  through 
the  heart  of  the  empire.  They  were  thus  enabled  to 
see  the  vast  interior  at  a  time  when  it  was  barred  alike 
to    traveller    and   missionary.     Of    this    adventurous 


64  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

journey  Hue's  published  "Travels"  is  the  immortal 
monument. 

We  have  thus  gone  over  China  and  glanced  at  most 
of  her  outlying  dependencies.  The  further  exploration 
of  Tibet  we  may  postpone  until  she  has  made  good 
her  claims  to  dominion  in  that  mountain  region.  The 
vastness  of  the  Chinese  Empire  and  the  immensity 
of  its  population  awaken  in  the  mind  a  multitude  of 
questions  to  which  nothing  but  history  can  give  an 
adequate  reply.  We  come  therefore  to  the  oracle 
whose  responses  may  perhaps  be  less  dubious  than 
those  of  Delphi. 


PART  II 

HISTORY  IN  OUTLINE 

FROM  THE  EARLIEST  TIMES 

TO  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 


Of 


CHAPTER  XIII 

ORIGIN  OF  THE  CHINESE 

Parent  Stock  a  Migratory  People — They  Invade  China 
from  the  Northwest  and  Colonise  the  Banks  of  the 
Yellow  River  and  of  the  Han — Their  Conflicts  with  the 
Aborigines — Native  Tribes  Absorbed  by  Conquerors 

THAT  the  parent  stock  in  which  the  Chinese  nation 
had  its  origin  was  a  small  migratory  people, 
like  the  tribes  of  Israel,  and  that  they  entered  the  land 
of  promise  from  the  northwest  is  tolerably  certain; 
but  to  trace  their  previous  wanderings  back  to  Shinar, 
India,  or  Persia  would  be  a  waste  of  time,  as  the 
necessary  data  are  lacking.  Even  within  their 
appointed  domain  the  accounts  of  their  early 
history  are  too  obscure  to  be  accepted  as  to  any  extent 
reliable. 

They  appear  to  have  begun  their  career  of  conquest 
by  colonising  the  banks  of  the  Yellow  River  and  those 
of  the  Han.  By  slow  stages  they  moved  eastward  to 
the  central  plain  and  southward  to  the  Yang-tse  Kiang. 
At  that  early  epoch,  between  3000  and  2000  b.  c, 
they  found  the  country  already  occupied  by  various 
wild  tribes  whom  they  considered  as  savages.  In  their 
early  traditions  they  describe  these  tribes  respectively 
by  four  words:  those  of  the  south  are  called  Man  (a 

word  with  the  silk  radical) ;  those  on  the  east,  Yi  (with 

67 


68  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

the  bow  radical) ;  those  on  the  north,  Tih  (represented 
by  a  dog  and  fire) ;  and  those  on  the  west,  Jung  ("  war- 
like, fierce,"  the  symbol  for  their  ideograph  being  a 
spear).  Each  of  these  names  points  to  something 
distinctive.  Some  of  these  tribes  were,  perhaps, 
spinners  of  silk;  some,  hunters;  and  all  of  them,  for- 
midable enemies. 

The  earliest  book  of  history  opens  with  conflicts  with 
aborigines.  There  can  be  no  question  that  the  slow 
progress  made  by  the  invaders  in  following  the  course 
of  those  streams  on  which  the  most  ancient  capitals 
of  the  Chinese  were  subsequently  located  was  owing 
to  the  necessity  of  fighting  their  way.  Shun,  the  second 
sovereign  of  whose  reign  there  is  record  (2200  b.  c), 
is  said  to  have  waged  war  with  San  Miao,  three  tribes 
of  miaotze  or  aborigines,  a  term  still  applied  to  the 
independent  tribes  of  the  southwest.  Beaten  in  the 
field,  or  at  least  suffering  a  temporary  check,  he  betook 
himself  to  the  rites  of  religion,  making  offerings  and 
praying  to  Shang-ti,  the  supreme  ruler.  "  After  forty 
days,"  it  is  stated,  "the  natives  submitted." 

In  the  absence  of  any  explanation  it  may  be 
concluded  that  during  the  suspension  of  hostilities 
negotiations  were  proceeding  which  resulted  not  in 
the  destruction  of  the  natives,  but  in  their  incorpora- 
tion with  their  more  civilised  neighbours.  This  first 
recorded  amalgamation  of  the  kind  was  doubtless  an 
instance  of  a  process  of  growth  that  continued  for 
many  centuries,  resulting  in  the  absorption  of  all  the 
native  tribes  on  the  north  of  the  Yang-tse  and  of  most 
of  those  on  the  south.  The  expanding  state  was  event- 
ually composed  of  a  vast  body  of  natives  who  sub- 


MPO 


PMt»v 


VEKISC:   SACRED  TABLET,  TEMPLE  OE  CONFUCIUS 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  CHINESE  69 

mitted  to  their  civilised  conquerors,  much  as  the 
people  of  Mexico  and  Peru  consented  to  be  ruled  by 
a  handful  of  Spaniards.* 

As  late  as  the  Christian  era  any  authentic  account 
of  permanent  conquests  in  China  to  the  south  of  the 
"Great  River"  is  still  wanting,  though  warlike  ex- 
peditions in  that  direction  were  not  infrequent.  The 
people  of  the  northern  provinces  called  themselves 
Han-jin,  "men  of  Han"  or  "sons  of  Han,"  while 
those  of  the  south  styled  themselves  r*ang-/w,  "men 
of  T*ang."  Does  not  this  indicate  that,  while  the  for- 
mer were  moulded  into  unity  by  the  great  dynasty 
which  took  its  name  from  the  river  Han  (206  b.  c), 
the  latter  did  not  become  Chinese  until  the  brilliant 
period  of  the  T*angs,  nearly  a  thousand  years  later? 
Further  confirmation  need  not  be  adduced  to  show 
that  the  empire  of  the  Far  East  contemporary  with, 
and  superior  in  civilisation  to,  ancient  Rome,  embraced 
less  than  the  eighteen  provinces  of  China  Proper. 
Of  the  nine  districts  into  which  it  was  divided  by 
Ta-y ii,  2100  b.  c.  not  one  was  south  of  the  "Great 
River." 


*  To  this  day,  the  bulk  of  the  people  in  those  countries  show  but  small 
traces  of  Spanish  blood.    Juarez,  the  famous  dictator,  was  a  ptire  Indian. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE  MYTHICAL  PERIOD 

Account  of  Creation — P'an-ku,  the  Ancient  Founder — 
The  Three  Sovereigns — The  Five  Rulers,  the  Be- 
ginnings of  Human  Civilisation — The  Golden  Age — 
Yau,  the  Unselfish  Monarch — Shun,  the  Paragon 
of  Domestic  Virtues — Story  of  Ta-yii — Rise  of 
Hereditary  Monarchy 

UNLIKE  the  Greeks  and  Hindoos,  the  Chinese 
are  deficient  in  the  sort  of  imagination  that 
breeds  a  poetical  mythology.  They  are  not,  however, 
wanting  in  that  pride  of  race  which  is  prone  to  lay 
claim  to  the  past  as  well  as  to  the  future.  They  have 
accordingly  constructed,  not  a  mythology,  but  a  ficti- 
tious history  which  begins  with  the  creation  of  the 
world. 

How  men  and  animals  were  made  they  do  not  say; 
but  they  assert  that  heaven  and  earth  were  united  in  a 
state  of  chaos  until  a  divine  man,  whom  they  call 
P'an-ku,  the  "ancient  founder,"  rent  them  asunder. 
Pictures  show  him  wielding  his  sledge-hammer  and 
disengaging  sun  and  moon  from  overlying  hills — 
a  grotesque  conception  in  strong  contrast  with  the 
simple  and  sublime  statement,  "God  said,  'Let  there 
be  light'  and  there  was  light."   P'an-ku  was  followed 

by  a  divine  being  named  NU-wa,  in  regard  to  whom  it 

70 


OF  THE 

Of 


THE  MYTHICAL  PERIOD  71 

is  doubtful  whether  to  speak  in  the  feminine  or  in  the 
masculine  gender.  Designated  queen  more  frequently 
than  king,  it  is  said  of  her  that,  a  portion  of  the  sky 
having  fallen  down  (probably  owing  to  the  defective 
work  of  her  predecessor),  she  rebuilt  it  with  precious 
stones  of  many  colours.  Lien  shih  pu  Hen,  "to  patch 
the  sky  with  precious  stones,"  is  a  set  phrase  by  which 
the  Chinese  indicate  that  which  is  fabulous  and 
absurd. 

Instead  of  filling  the  long  interval  between  the 
creation  of  the  world  and  the  birth  of  history  with 
gods  and  fairies,  the  Chinese  cover  that  period  by 
three  sovereigns  whom  they  call  after  their  favourite 
triad,  heaven,  earth,  and  man,  giving  them  the  respec- 
tive titles  Ti6n-hwang,  Ti-hwang,  and  Jin-hwang. 
Each  of  these  reigned  eighteen  thousand  years;  but 
what  they  reigned  over  is  not  apparent.  At  all  events 
they  seem  to  have  contributed  little  to  the  comfort 
of  their  people;  for  at  the  close  of  that  long  period 
the  wretched  inhabitants  of  the  empire — the  only 
country  then  known  to  exist  on  earth — had  no  houses, 
no  clothes,  no  laws,  and  no  letters. 

Now  come  five  personages  who,  in  accordance  with 
Chinese  historical  propriety,  are  likewise  invested 
with  imperial  dignity  and  are  called  Wu-ti,  ' '  the  five 
rulers."  Collectively  they  represent  the  first  appear- 
ance of  the  useful  arts,  the  rude  beginnings  of  hu- 
man civilisation.  One  of  these  rulers,  noticing  that 
birds  constructed  nests,  taught  his  people  to  build 
huts,  from  which  he  is  called  the  "nest  builder." 
Another  was  the  Prometheus  of  his  day  and  obtained 
fire,  not,  however,  by  stealing  it  from  the  sun,  but  by 


72  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

honestly  working  for  it  with  two  pieces  of  wood  which 
he  rubbed  together.  The  third  of  these  rulers,  named 
Fuhi,  appears  to  have  been  the  teacher  of  his  people 
in  the  art  of  rearing  domestic  animals;  in  other  words, 
the  initiator  of  pastoral  life,  and  possibly  the  originator 
of  sacrificial  offerings.  The  fourth  in  order  introduced 
husbandry.  As  has  been  stated  in  a  previous  chapter 
(see  page  36) ,  he  has  no  name  except  Shin-nung, ' '  divine 
husbandman";  and  under  that  title  he  continues  to 
be  worshipped  at  the  present  day  as  the  Ceres  of  China. 
The  Emperor  every  spring  repairs  to  his  temple  to 
plough  a  few  furrows  by  way  of  encouragement  to  his 
people.  The  last  of  the  five  personages  is  called  the 
"yellow  ruler,"  whether  from  the  colour  of  his  robes, 
or  as  ruler  of  the  yellow  race,  is  left  in  doubt.  He  is 
credited  with  the  invention  of  letters  and  the  cycle 
of  sixty  years,  the  foundation  of  Chinese  chronology 
(2700  B.  c). 

Unlike  the  long  twilight  which  precedes  the  dawn 
in  high  latitudes,  the  semi-mythical  age  was  brief, 
covering  no  more  than  two  reigns,  those  of  Yao 
and  Shun.  Confucius  regarded  these  as  included  in  the 
"five  rulers."  To  make  room  for  them,  he  omits  the 
first  two;  and  he  seldom  refers  to  the  others,  but  ap- 
pears to  accept  them  as  real  personages.  He  is  no 
critic;  but  he  has  shown  good  sense  in  drawing  the 
line  no  further  back.  He  has  made  the  epoch  of  these 
last  a  golden  age  (2356-2206)  which  is  not  the  creation 
of  a  poet,  but  the  conception  of  a  philosopher  who 
wished  to  have  an  open  space  on  which  to  build  up 
his  political  theories.  He  found,  moreover,  in  these 
primitive    times    some    features    by    which    he    was 


THE  MYTHICAL  PERIOD  73 

greatly  fascinated.  The  simplicity  and  freedom  which 
appeared  to  prevail  in  those  far-off  days  were  to  him 
very  attractive. 

It  is  related  that  Yao,  the  type  of  an  unselfish 
monarch,  while  on  a  tour  of  inspection  in  the  disguise 
of  a  peasant,  heard  an  old  man  singing  this  song  to 
the  notes  of  his  guitar: 

"I  plough  my  ground  and  eat  my  own  bread, 
I  dig  my  well  and  drink  my  own  water: 
What  use  have  I  for  king  or  court?" 

Yao  returned  to  his  palace,  rejoicing  that  the  state 
of  his  country  was  such  that  his  people  were  able  to 
forget  him. 

Another  feature  which  the  Chinese  hold  up  in  bold 
relief  is  the  fact  that  in  those  days  the  occupancy  of 
the  throne  was  not  hereditary.  Yao  is  said  to  have 
reigned  a  hundred  years.  When  he  was  growing  old 
he  saw  with  grief  that  his  son  showed  no  signs  of  being 
a  worthy  successor.  Setting  him  aside,  therefore,  he 
asked  his  ministers  to  recommend  someone  as  his 
heir.  They  all  agreed  in  nominating  Shun.  "What 
are  his  merits?"  asked  the  King.  "Filial  piety  and 
fraternal  kindness,"  they  replied.  "By  these  virtues 
he  has  wrought  a  reform  in  a  family  noted  for  per- 
verseness."  The  King  desiring  to  know  the  facts, 
they  related  the  following  story: 

"Shun's  father  is  an  ill-natured,  blind  man.  He 
has  a  cruel  stepmother  and  a  selfish,  petulant  younger 
brother.  This  boy,  the  pet  of  his  parents,  treated 
Shun  with  insolence;  and  the  father  and  mother 
joined  in  persecuting  the  elder  son.  Shun,  without 
showing  resentment,  cried  aloud  to  Heaven  and  ob- 


74  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

tained  patience  to  bear  their  harshness.  By  duty 
and  affection  he  has  won  the  hearts  of  all  three." 
"Bring  him  before  me,"  said  the  King;  "I  have  yet 
another  trial  by  which  to  test  his  virtues."  Yao 
made  him  his  son-in-law,  giving  him  his  two  daughters 
at  once.  He  wished  to  see  whether  the  good  son  and 
brother  would  also  be  a  good  husband  and  father — 
an  example  for  his  people  in  all  their  domestic  relations. 
Shun  accepted  the  test  with  becoming  resignation 
and  comported  himself  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  old 
king,  who  raised  him  to  the  throne.  After  a  reign  of 
fifty  years,  partly  as  Yao's  associate.  Shun  followed 
the  example  of  his  father-in-law.  Passing  by  his  own 
son,  he  left  the  throne  to  Ta-yii  or  Yii,  a  man  who 
had  been  subjected  to  trials  far  more  serious  than  that 
of  having  to  live  in  the  same  house  with  a  pair  of  pretty 
princesses. 

A  question  discussed  in  the  school  of  Mencius, 
many  centuries  later,  may  be  cited  here  for  the  light 
it  throws  on  the  use  made  by  Chinese  schoolmen  of 
the  examples  of  this  period.  "Suppose,"  said  one 
of  his  students,  "that  Shun's  father  had  killed  a 
man,  would  Shun,  being  king,  have  allowed  him  to  be 
condemned?"  "No,"  replied  the  master;  "he  would 
have  renounced  the  throne  and,  taking  his  father  on 
his  shoulders,  he  would  have  fled  away  to  the  seaside, 
rejoicing  in  the  consciousness  of  having  performed 
the  duty  of  a  filial  son."  Shun  continues  to  be  cited 
as  the  paragon  of  domestic  virtues,  occupying  the 
first  place  in  a  list  of  twenty-four  who  are  noted  for 
filial  piety. 

The  trial  by  which  the  virtues  of  Ta-yii  were  proved 


THE  MYTHICAL  PERIOD  75 

was  an  extraordinary  feat  of  engineering — ^nothing 
less  than  the  subduing  of  the  waters  of  a  deluge. 
"The  waters,"  said  the  King,  "embosom  the  high 
hills  and  insolently  menace  heaven  itself.  Who  will 
find  us  a  man  to  take  them  in  hand  and  keep  them 
in  place?"  His  ministers  recommended  one  Kun. 
Kun  failed  to  accomplish  the  task,  and  Shun,  who  in 
this  case  hardly  serves  for  the  model  of  a  just  ruler, 
put  him  to  death.  Then  the  task  was  imposed  on 
Ta-yu,  the  son  of  the  man  who  had  been  executed. 
After  nine  years  of  incredible  hardships  he  brought 
the  work  to  a  successful  termination.  During  this 
time  he  extended  his  care  to  the  rivers  of  more  than  one 
province,  dredging,  ditching,  and  diking.  Three  times 
he  passed  his  own  door  and,  though  he  heard  the 
cries  of  his  infant  son,  he  did  not  once  enter  his 
house.  The  son  of  a  criminal  who  had  suffered 
death,  a  throne  was  the  meed  of  his  diligence  and 
ability. 

A  temple  in  Hanyang,  at  the  confluence  of  two 
rivers,  commemorates  Ta-yii's  exploit,  which  cer- 
tainly throws  the  labours  of  Hercules  completely  into 
the  shade.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  river  stands  a 
pillar,  inscribed  in  antique  hieroglyphics,  which  pro- 
fesses to  record  this  great  achievement.  It  is  a  copy 
of  one  which  stands  on  Mount  Hang;  and  the  char- 
acters, in  the  tadpole  style,  are  so  ancient  that  doubts 
as  to  their  actual  meaning  exist  among  scholars  of 
the  present  day.  Each  letter  is  accordingly  ac- 
companied by  its  equivalent  in  modem  Chinese. 
The  stone  purports  to  have  been  erected  by  Ta-yii 
himself — ^good  ground  for  suspicion — but  it  has  been 


76  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

proved  to  be  a  fabrication  of  a  later  age,  though  still 
very  ancient.* 

In  the  two  preceding  reigns  the  sovereign  had  always 
consulted  the  public  good  rather  than  family  interest 
— a  form  of  monarchy  which  the  Chinese  call  elective, 
but  which  has  never  been  followed,  save  that  the 
Emperor  exercises  the  right  of  choice  among  his  sons 
irrespective  of  primogeniture.  The  man  who  bears 
the  odium  of  having  departed  from  the  unselfish  policy 
of  Yao  and  Shun  is  this  same  Ta-yii.  He  left  the 
throne  to  his  son  and,  as  the  Chinese  say,  "made  of 
the  empire  a  family  estate." 

This  narrative  comes  from  the  Shu-King  or  "Book 
of  History,"  the  most  venerated  of  the  Five  Classics 
edited  by  Confucius;  but  the  reader  will  readily  per- 
ceive that  it  is  no  more  historical  than  the  stories  of 
Codrus  or  Numa  Pompilius. 

In  the  reign  of  Yao  we  have  an  account  of  astronom- 
ical observations  made  with  a  view  to  fixing  the  length 
of  the  year.  The  King  tells  one  man  to  go  to  the 
east  and  another  to  the  west,  to  observe  the  culmination 
and  transit  of  certain  stars.  As  a  result  he  says  they 
will  find  that  the  year  consists  of  366  days,  a  close 
approximation  for  that  epoch.  The  absurdity  of 
this  style,  which  attributes  omniscience  to  the  prince 
and  leaves  to  his  agents  nothing  but  the  task  of  verifi- 
cation, should  not  be  allowed  to  detract  from  the 
credit  due  to  their  observations.  The  result  arrived 
at  was  about  the  same  as  that  reached  by  the  Baby- 
lonians at  the  same  date  (2356  b.  c.) 

Other  rulers  who  are  credited  with  great  inventions 

*  Dr.  Hanisch  of  Berlin  has  taken  great  pains  to  expose  the  imposture. 


FRFSHMAX  CT.ASS,  P.OOXE  SCHOOL,  WUCHANG 


BOONE  SCHOOL  PICXIC,  WUCHANG 


^SlC/F, 


Or  NIK 


THE  MYTHICAL  PERIOD  77 

probably  made  them  in  the  same  way.  Whether 
under  Fuhi  or  Hwang-ti,  Ts'ang-kie  is  recognised  as 
the  Cadmus  of  China,  the  author  of  its  written  char- 
acters; and  Tanao,  a  minister  of  Hwang-ti,  is  admitted 
to  be  the  author  of  the  cycle  of  sixty.  Both  of  those 
emperors  may  be  imagined  as  calling  up  their  ministers 
and  saying  to  one,  "  Go  and  invent  the  art  of  writing," 
and  to  the  other,  "Work  out  a  system  of  chronology." 
In  the  same  way,  the  inception  of  the  culture  of 
the  silkworm  and  the  discovery  of  the  magnetic  needle 
are  attributed  to  the  predecessors  of  Yao,  probably 
on  the  principle  that  treasure-trove  was  the  property 
of  the  King  and  that  if  no  claimant  for  the  honour 
could  be  found  it  must  be  attributed  to  some  ancient 
monarch.  The  production  of  silk,  as  woman's  work, 
they  profess  to  assign  to  the  consort  of  one  of  those 
worthies — a  thing  improbable  if  not  impossible,  her 
place  of  residence  being  in  the  north  of  China.  Their 
picttire-writing  tells  a  different  tale.  Their  word 
for  a  southern  barbarian,  compounded  of  "silk"  and 
"worm,"  points  to  the  south  as  the  source  of  that 
useful  industry,  much  as  our  word  "silk,"  derived 
from  sericum,  points  to  China  as  its  origin. 


CHAPTER  XV 

THE  THREE  DYNASTIES 

The  House  of  Hia — Ta-yu's  Consideration  for  His 
Subjects — Kie's  Excesses — The  House  of  Shang — 
Shang-tang,  the  Founder,  Offers  Himself  as  a  Sacri- 
ficial Victim,  and  Brings  Rain — Chou-sin  Sets  Fire 
to  His  Own  Palace  and  Perishes  in  the  Flames 
— The  House  of  Chou 

THE  Hia,  Shang  and  Chou  dynasties  together 
extend  over  the  twenty-two  centuries  preceding 
the  Christian  Era.  The  first  occupies  440  years; 
the  second,  644;  and  the  last,  in  the  midst  of  turmoil 
and  anarchy,  drags  out  a  miserable  existence  of  874 
years.  They  are  grouped  together  as  the  San  Tai  or 
San  Wang,  "the  Three  Houses  of  Kings,"  because  that 
title  was  employed  by  the  founder  of  each.  Some  of 
their  successors  were  called  Ti;  but  Hwang-ti,  the 
term  for  "emperor"  now  in  use,  was  never  employed 
until  it  was  assumed  by  the  builder  of  the  Great  Wall 
on  the  overthrow  of  the  feudal  states  and  the  con- 
solidation of  the  empire,  240  b.  c. 

THE  HOUSE  OF  HIA,   2205-1766  B.  C. 
(17  kings,  2  usurpers) 

Unlike  most  founders  of  royal  houses,  who  come  to 
the  throne  through  a  deluge  of  blood,  Ta-yu,  as  has 
been  shown  in  the  last  chapter,  climbed  to  that  emi- 

78 


THE  THREE  DYNASTIES  79 

nence  through  a  deluge  of  water.  Like  Noah,  the 
hero  of  an  earlier  deluge,  he  seems  to  have  indulged, 
for  once  at  least,  too  freely  in  the  use  of  wine.  A 
chapter  in  the  "  Book  of  History,"  entitled  "A  Warning 
Against  Wine,"  informs  us  that  one  Yiti  having  made 
wine  presented  it  to  his  prince.  Ta-yii  was  delighted 
with  it,  but  discontinued  its  use,  saying  that  in  time 
to  come  kings  would  lose  their  thrones  through  a 
fondness  for  the  beverage.  In  China  "wine"  is  a  com- 
mon name  for  all  intoxicating  drinks.  That  referred 
to  in  this  passage  was  doubtless  a  distillation  from 
rice  or  millet. 

In  the  discharge  of  his  public  duties  Ta-yii  showed 
himself  no  less  diligent  than  in  contending  with  the 
waters.  He  hung  at  his  door  a  bell  which  the  poorest 
of  his  subjects  might  ring  and  thus  obtain  immediate 
attention.  It  is  said  that  when  taking  a  bath,  if  he 
heard  the  bell  he  sometimes  rushed  out  without 
adjusting  his  raiment  and  that  while  partaking  of 
a  meal,  if  the  bell  rang  he  did  not  allow  himself  time 
to  swallow  his  rice. 

Prior  to  laying  down  his  toilsome  dignity  Ta-yii 
caused  to  be  cast  nine  brazen  tripods,  each  bearing 
an  outline  map  or  a  description  of  one  of  the  provinces 
of  the  empire.  In  later  ages  these  were  deemed  pre- 
eminently the  patent  of  imperial  power.  On  one 
occasion  a  feudal  prince  asked  the  question,  "How  heavy 
are  these  tripods?"  A  minister  of  state,  suspecting 
an  intention  to  remove  them  and  usurp  the  power, 
replied  in  a  long  speech,  proving  the  divine  commis- 
sion of  his  master,  and  asked  in  conclusion,  "Why 
then  should  you  inquire  the  weight  of  these  tripods?" 


So  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

Of  the  subsequent  reigns  nothing  worth  repetition 
is  recorded  except  the  fall  of  the  dynasty.  This, 
however,  is  due  more  to  the  meagreness  of  the  language 
of  that  day  than  to  the  insignificance  of  the  seventeen 
kings.  Is  it  not  probable  that  they  were  occupied  in 
making  good  their  claim  to  the  nine  provinces  em- 
blazoned on  the  tripods? 

Kie,  the  last  king,  is  said  to  have  fallen  under  the 
fascination  of  a  beautiful  woman  and  to  have  spent 
his  time  in  undignified  carousals.  He  built  a  mountain 
of  flesh  and  filled  a  tank  with  wine,  and  to  amuse  her 
he  caused  3,000  of  his  courtiers  to  go  on  all  fours  and 
drink  from  the  tank  like  so  many  cows. 

THE  SHANG  DYNASTY,   1766-II22  B.  C. 

(28  kings) 

The  founder  of  this  dynasty  was  Shang-tang,  or 
Cheng-tang,  who  to  great  valour  added  the  virtues  of 
humanity  and  justice.  Pitying  the  oppressions  of 
the  people,  he  came  to  them  as  a  deliverer;  and  the 
frivolous  tyrant  was  compelled  to  retire  into  obscurity. 
A  more  remarkable  exhibition  of  public  spirit  was  the 
offering  of  himself  as  a  victim  to  propitiate  the  wrath 
of  Heaven.  In  a  prolonged  famine,  his  prayers  having 
failed  to  bring  rain,  the  soothsayers  said  that  a  human 
victim  was  required.  "  It  shall  be  myself,"  he  replied; 
and,  stripping  off  his  regal  robes,  he  laid  himself  on  the 
altar.  A  copious  shower  was  the  response  to  this 
act  of  devotion. 

The  successor  of  Shang-tang  was  his  grandson 
T'ai-kia,  who  was  under  the  tutelage  of  a  wise  minister 


THE  THREE  DYNASTIES  8i 

named  I-yin.  Observing  the  indolence  and  pleasure- 
loving  disposition  of  the  young  man,  the  minister 
sent  him  into  retirement  for  three  years  that  he  might 
acquire  habits  of  sobriety  and  diligence.  The  circum- 
stance that  makes  this  incident  worth  recording  is 
that  the  minister,  instead  of  retaining  the  power  in 
his  own  family,  restored  the  throne  to  its  rightful 
occupant. 

Another  king  of  this  house,  by  name  P'an-keng, 
has  no  claim  to  distinction  other  than  that  of  having 
moved  his  capital  five  times.  As  we  are  not  told 
that  he  was  pursued  by  vindictive  enemies,  we  are 
left  to  the  conjecture  that  he  was  escaping  from  dis- 
astrous floods,  or,  perhaps  under  the  influence  of  a 
silly  superstition,  was  in  quest  of  some  luckier  site. 

Things  went  from  bad  to  worse,  and  finally  Chou- 
sin  surpassed  in  evil  excesses  the  man  who  had  brought 
ruin  upon  the  House  of  Hia.  The  House  of  Shang 
of  course  suffered  the  same  fate.  An  ambitious  but 
kind-hearted  prince  came  forward  to  succour  the 
people,  and  was  welcomed  by  them  as  a  deliverer. 
The  tyrant,  seeing  that  all  was  lost,  arrayed  himself 
in  festal  robes,  set  fire  to  his  own  palace,  and,  like 
another  Sardanapalus,  perished  in  the  flames. 

He  and  Kie  make  a  couple  who  are  held  up  to  ever- 
lasting execration  as  a  warning  to  tyrannical  princes. 
Like  his  remote  predecessor,  Chou-sin  is  reputed  to 
have  been  led  into  his  evil  courses  by  a  wicked  woman, 
named  Ta-ki.  One  suspects  that  neither  one  nor  the 
other  stood  in  need  of  such  prompting.  According  to 
history,  bad  kings  are  generally  worse  than  bad  queens. 
In  China,  however,  a  woman  is  considered  out  of  place 


82  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

when  she  lays  her  hand  on  the  helm  of  state.  Hence 
the  tendency  to  blacken  the  names  of  those  famous 
court  beauties. 

If  Mencius  may  be  believed,  the  tyrants  themselves 
were  not  quite  so  profligate  as  the  story  makes  them. 
He  says,  "Dirty  water  has  a  tendency  to  accumulate 
in  the  lowest  sinks";  and  he  warns  the  princes  of  his 
time  not  to  put  themselves  in  a  position  in  which 
future  ages  will  continue  to  heap  opprobrium  on  their 
memory. 

Of  the  wise  founders  of  this  dynasty  it  is  said  that 
they  "made  religion  the  basis  of  education,"  as  did 
the  Romans,  who  prided  themselves  on  devotion  to 
their  gods.  In  both  cases  natural  religion  degen- 
erated into  gross  superstition.  In  the  number  of  their 
gods  the  Chinese  have  exceeded  the  Romans ;  and  they 
refer  the  worship  of  many  of  them  to  the  Shang  dynasty. 

The  following  dynasty,  that  of  Chou  (35  sovereigns, 
1122-249  B.  c.,)  merits  a  separate  chapter. 


OF   THe 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


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a 
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0. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

HOUSE  OF  CHOU 

Wen-wang,  the  founder — Rise  and  Progress  of  Culture — 
Communistic  Land  Tenure — Origin  of  the  term 
''Middle  Kingdom'' — Duke  Chou  and  Cheng 
wangy  ''The  Completer" — A  Royal  Traveller — Li 
and  Yu,  two  bad  kings 

THE  merciful  conqueror  who  at  this  time  rescued 
the  people  from  oppression  was  Wu-wang,  the 
martial  king.  He  found,  it  is  said,  the  people  "  hang- 
ing with  their  heads  downward  "  and  set  them  on  their 
feet.  On  the  eve  of  the  decisive  battle  he  har- 
angued his  troops,  appealing  to  the  Deity  as  the 
arbiter,  and  expressing  confidence  in  the  result.  "The 
tyrant,"  he  said,  "has  ten  myriads  of  soldiers,  and  I 
have  but  one  myriad.  His  soldiers,  however,  have 
ten  myriads  of  hearts,  while  my  army  has  but  one 
heart." 

When  the  battle  had  been  fought  and  won  he  turned 
his  war-horses  out  to  pasture  and  ordained  that  they 
should  be  forever  free  from  yoke  and  saddle.  Could 
he  have  been  less  humane  in  the  treatment  of  his  new 
subjects  ? 

The  credit  of  his  victory  he  gave  to  ten  wise  coun- 
sellors, one  of  whom  was  his  mother.  History,  how- 
ever, ascribes  it  in  a  large  degree  to  his  father,  Wen- 

83 


84  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

wang,  who  was  then  dead,  but  who  had  prepared  the 
way  for  his  son's  triumph. 

Wen-wang,  the  Beauclerc  of  the  Chous,  is  one  of 
the  most  notable  figures  in  the  ancient  history  of  China. 
A  vassal  prince,  by  wise  management  rather  than  by 
military  prowess  he  succeeded  in  enlarging  his  do- 
minions so  that  he  became  possessor  of  two-thirds  of 
the  empire.  He  is  applauded  for  his  wisdom  in  still 
paying  homage  to  his  feeble  chief.  The  latter,  however, 
must  have  regarded  him  with  no  little  suspicion,  as 
Wen-wang  was  thrown  into  prison,  and  only  regained 
his  liberty  at  the  cost  of  a  heavy  ransom.  Wen-wang 
apparently  anticipated  a  mortal  struggle;  for  it  is 
related  that,  seeing  an  old  man  fishing,  he  detected  in 
him  an  able  general  who  had  fled  the  service  of  the 
tyrant.  "You,"  said  he,  "are  the  very  man  I  have 
been  looking  for  " ;  and,  taking  him  up  into  his  chariot, 
as  Jehu  did  Jonadab,  he  rejoiced  in  the  assurance  of 
coming  victory.  The  fisherman  was  Kiang  Tai  Kung, 
the  ancestor  of  the  royal  House  of  Ts'i  in  Shantung. 
Though  eighty-one  years  of  age  he  took  command  of 
the  cavalry  and  presided  in  the  councils  of  his  new 
master. 

Fitting  it  was  that  the  Beauclerc,  Wen-wang  should 
be  the  real  founder  of  the  new  dynasty;  for  now  for 
the  first  time  those  pictured  symbols  become  living 
blossoms  from  which  the  fruits  of  learning  and  philos- 
ophy are  to  be  gathered.  The  rise  and  progress  of  a 
generous  culture  is  the  chief  characteristic  of  the  House 
of  Chou.  Besides  encouraging  letters  Wen-wang  con- 
tributed much  to  the  new  literature.  He  is  known  as 
a  commentator  in  the  Yih-King,   "Book  of  Changes," 


LIFO"'^'' 


I 


i 


*!* 


THE  LITTLE  ORPHAN,  PROVINCE  OF  KIANGSI 


HOUSE  OF  CHOU  85 

pronounced  by  Confucius  the  profoundest  of  the 
ancient  classics — a  book  which  he  never  understood. 
In  theory  there  was  under  this  and  the  preceding 
dynasty  no  private  ownership  of  land.  The  arable 
ground  was  laid  out  in  plots  of  nine  squares,  thus: 
Eight  of  these  were  assigned  to  the  people 
to  cultivate  for  themselves;  and  the  middle 
square  was  reserved  for  the  government  and 
tilled  by  the  joint  labour  of  all.  The  simple- 
hearted  souls  of  that  day  are  said  to  have  prayed  that 
the  rains  might  first  descend  on  the  public  field  and 
then  visit  their  private  grounds. 

In  later  years  this  communistic  scheme  was  found 
not  to  work  perfectly,  owing,  it  is  said,  to  the  decay  of 
public  virtue.  A  statesman,  named  Shangyang,  con- 
verted the  tenure  of  land  into  fee  simple — a  natural 
evolution  which  was,  however,  regarded  as  quite  too 
revolutionary  and  earned  for  him  the  execrations  of 
the  populace. 

The  charming  simplicity  of  the  above  little  diagram 
would  seem  to  have  suggested  the  arrangement  of 
fiefs  in  the  state,  in  which  the  irregular  feudality  of 
former  times  became  moulded  into  a  symmetrical 
system.  The  sovereign  state  was  in  the  centre;  and 
those  of  the  feudal  barons  were  ranged  on  the  four 
sides  in  successive  rows.  The  central  portion  was 
designated  Chung  Kwoh,  "Middle  Kingdom,"  a  title 
which  has  come  to  be  applied  to  the  whole  empire, 
implying,  of  course,  that  all  the  nations  of  the  earth  are 
its  vassals. 

Laid  out  with  the  order  of  a  camp  and  ruled  with 
martial  vigour,  the  new  state  prospered  for  a  few  reigns. 


86  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

At  length,  however,  smitten  with  a  disease  of  the  heart 
the  members  no  longer  obeyed  the  behests  of  the  head. 
Decay  and  anarchy  are  written  on  the  last  pages  of 
the  history  of  the  House  of  Chou. 

The  martial  king  died  young,  leaving  his  infant  heir 
under  the  regency  of  his  brother,  the  Duke  of  Chou. 
The  latter,  who  inherited  the  tastes  and  talents  of 
Wen-wang,  was  avowedly  the  character  which  the 
great  Sage  took  for  his  pattern.  With  fidelity  and 
ability  he  completed  the  pacification  of  the  state. 
The  credit  of  that  achievement  inured  to  his  ward, 
who  received  the  title  of  Cheng-wangy  "The  Com- 
pleter." 

Accused  of  scheming  to  usurp  the  throne,  the 
Duke  resigned  his  powers  and  withdrew  from  the 
court.  The  young  prince,  opening  a  golden  casket, 
found  in  it  a  prayer  of  his  uncle,  made  and  sealed 
up  during  a  serious  illness  of  the  King,  im- 
ploring Heaven  to  accept  his  life  as  a  ransom  for  his 
royal  ward.  This  touching  proof  of  devotion  dis- 
pelled all  doubt;  and  the  faithful  duke  was  recalled 
to  the  side  of  the  now  full-grown  monarch. 

Even  during  the  minority  of  his  nephew  the  Duke 
never  entered  his  presence  in  other  than  full  court 
costume.  On  one  occasion  the  youthful  king,  playing 
with  a  younger  brother,  handed  him  a  palm  leaf  saying, 
"This  shall  be  your  patent  of  nobility.  I  make  you 
duke  of  such  and  such  a  place."  The  regent  remon- 
strated, whereupon  the  King  excused  himself  by  saying, 
"I  was  only  in  sport."  The  Duke  replied,  "A  king 
has  no  right  to  indulge  in  such  sports,"  and  insisted 
that    the    younger  lad    receive  the    investiture    and 


OF   TH€ 

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HOUSE  OF  CHOU  87 

emoluments.  He  was  also,  it  is  said,  so  careful  of  the 
sacred  person  that  he  never  left  on  it  the  mark  of  his 
rod.  When  the  little  king  deserved  chastisement,  the 
guardian  always  called  up  his  own  son,  Pechin,  and 
thrashed  him  soundly.  One  pities  the  poor  fellow  who 
was  the  innocent  substitute  more  than  one  admires 
the  scrupulous  and  severe  regent.  The  Chinese  have 
a  proverb  which  runs,  "Whip  an  ass  and  let  a  horse 
see  it." 

What  shall  be  said  of  the  successors  of  Cheng- wang  ? 
To  account  for  the  meagre  chronicles  of  previous  dy- 
nasties one  may  invoke  the  poverty  of  a  language  not 
yet  sufficiently  mature  for  the  requirements  of  history; 
but  for  the  seeming  insignificance  of  the  long  line  of 
Chous,  who  lived  in  the  early  bloom,  if  not  the  rich 
fruitage,  of  the  classic  period,  no  such  apology  is 
admissible. 

Some  there  were,  doubtless,  who  failed  to  achieve 
distinction  because  they  had  no  foreign  foe  to  oppose, 
no  internal  rebellion  to  suppress.  Others,  again,  were 
so  hampered  by  system  that  they  had  nothing  better 
to  do  than  to  receive  the  homage  of  vassals.  So 
wearied  was  one  among  them,  Mu-wang,  the  fifth  in 
succession,  with  those  monotonous  ceremonies  that  he 
betook  himself  to  foreign  travel  as  a  relief  from  ennui, 
or  perhaps  impelled  by  an  innate  love  of  adventure. 
He  delighted  in  horses;  and,  yoking  eight  fine  steeds 
to  his  chariot,  he  set  off  to  see  the  world.  A  book  full 
of  fables  professes  to  record  the  narrative  of  his  travels. 
He  had,  it  says,  a  magic  whip  which  possessed  the  prop- 
erty of  compressing  the  surface  of  the  earth  into  a 
small  space.     To-day  Chinese  envoys,  with  steam  and 


88  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

electricity  at  command,  are  frequently  heard  to  ex- 
claim: "Now  at  last  we  have  got  the  swift  steeds 
and  the  magic  whip  of  Mu-wang." 

Two  other  kings,  Li  and  Yu,  are  pointed  at  with  the 
finger  of  scorn  as  examples  of  what  a  king  ought  not  to 
be.  The  latter  set  aside  his  queen  and  her  son  in  favour 
of  a  concubine  and  her  son;  and  so  offended  was  high 
heaven  by  this  unkingly  conduct  that  the  sun  hid  his 
face  in  a  total  eclipse.  This  happened  775  b.  c;  and 
it  furnishes  the  starting-point  for  a  reliable  chronology. 
For  her  amusement  the  king  caused  the  signal-fires 
to  be  lighted.  She  laughed  heartily  to  see  the  great 
barons  rush  to  the  rescue  and  find  it  was  a  false  alarm; 
but  she  did  not  smile  when,  not  long  after  this,  the 
capital  was  attacked  by  a  real  foe,  the  father  of  her 
injured  rival.  The  signal-fires  were  again  lighted;  but 
the  barons,  having  once  been  deceived  by  the  cry  of 
"Wolf,"  took  care  not  to  expose  themselves  again  to 
derision. 

The  other  king  has  not  been  lifted  into  the  fierce 
light  that  beats  upon  a  throne  by  anything  so  tragic  as 
a  burning  palace;  but  his  name  is  coupled  with  that  of 
the  former  as  a  synonym  of  all  that  is  weak  and 
contemptible. 

The  story  of  the  House  of  Chou  is  not  to  be  disposed 
of  in  a  few  paragraphs,  like  the  accounts  of  the  pre- 
ceding dynasties,  because  it  was  preeminently  the  for- 
mative period  of  ancient  China;  the  age  of  her  greatest 
sages,  and  the  birthday  of  poetry  and  philosophy.  I 
shall  therefore  devote  a  chapter  to  the  sages  and  an- 
other to  the  reign  of  anarchy  before  closing  the  Book  of 
Chou. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

THE  SAGES  OF  CHINA 

Confucius — Describes  Himself  as  Editor,  not  Author — 
"Model  Teacher  of  All  Ages" — Mencius — More 
Eloquent  than  his  Great  Master — Lao-tse,  the 
Founder  of  Taoism 

r 

I  SHALL  not  introduce  the  reader  to  all  who  justly 
bear  the  august  title  of  sage;  for  China  has  had 
more  and  wiser  sages  than  any  other  ancient  country. 
Some  of  them  may  be  referred  to  in  the  sequel;  but 
this  chapter  I  shall  devote  chiefly  to  the  two  who  by 
universal  consent  have  no  equals  in  the  history  of  the 
Empire — Confucius  and  Mencius.  These  great  men 
owe  much  of  their  fame  to  the  learned  Jesuits  who 
first  brought  them  on  the  stage,  clad  in  the  Roman 
toga,  and  made  them  citizens  of  the  world  by  giving 
them  the  euphonious  names  b}^  which  they  are  popu- 
larly known.  Stripped  of  their  disguise  they  appear 
respectively  as  K'ung  Fu-tse  and  Meng-tse.  Exchang- 
ing the  ore  rotundo  of  Rome  for  the  sibillation  of  China, 
they  never  could  have  been  naturalised  as  they  are 
now. 

CONFUCIUS 

Born  in  the  year  549  b.  c,  Confucius  was  contem- 
poraneous with  Isaiah  and  Socrates.     Of  a  respectable 

but  not  opulent   family  he  had   to   struggle  for  his 

89 


90  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

education — a  fact  which  in  after  years  he  was  so  far 
from  concealing  that  he  ascribed  to  it  much  of  his 
success  in  life.  To  one  who  asked  him,  "  How  comes  it 
that  you  are  able  to  do  so  many  things,"  he  replied,  "I 
was  born  poor  and  had  to  learn."  His  schoolmasters 
are  unknown;  and  it  might  be  asked  of  him,  as  it  was 
of  a  greater  than  Confucius,  "How  knoweth  this  man 
letters,  having  never  learned?" 

Of  his  self -education,  which  continued  through  life, 
he  gives  the  following  concise  account:  "At  fifteen 
I  entered  on  a  life  of  study;  at  thirty  I  took  my 
stand  as  a  scholar;  at  forty  my  opinions  were  fixed; 
at  fifty  I  knew  how  to  judge  and  select;  at  sixty 
I  never  relapsed  into  a  known  fault;  at  seventy  I  could 
follow  my  inclinations  without  going  wrong."  Note 
how  each  stage  marks  an  advance  towards  moral 
excellence.  Mark  also  that  this  passage  gives  an  out- 
line of  self-discipline.  It  says  nothing  of  his  books  or 
of  his  work  as  a  statesman  and  a  reformer. 

He  is  said  to  have  had,  first  and  last,  three  thousand 
disciples.  Those  longest  under  instruction  numbered 
twelve.  They  studied,  not  with  lectures  and  text- 
books, as  in  modem  schools,  but  by  following  his  foot- 
steps and  taking  the  impress  of  his  character,  much 
as  Peter  and  John  followed  the  steps  and  studied  the 
life  of  Christ.  Some  of  them  followed  Confucius  when, 
bent  on  effecting  a  political  as  well  as  an  ethical  re- 
form, he  travelled  from  court  to  court  among  the  petty 
principalities.  They  have  placed  it  on  record  that 
once,  when  exposed  to  great  peril,  he  comforted  them 
by  saying,  "If  Heaven  has  made  me  the  depositary 
of  these  teachings,  what  can  my  enemies  do  against 


CALtFQj^ 


THE  SAGES  OF  CHINA  91 

me? "     Nobly  conscious  of  a  more  than  human  mission, 
so  pure  were  his  teachings  that,   though  he  taught   ' 
morals,  not  religion,  he  might  fairly,  with  Socrates, 
be  allowed  to  claim  a  sort  of  inspiration. 

The  one  God,  of  whom  he  knew  little,  he  called 
Heaven,  and  he  always  spoke  of  Heaven  with  the  pro- 
foundest  reverence.  When  neglected  or  misunderstood 
he  consoled  himself  by  saying,  "Heaven  knows  me." 
During  a  serious  illness  a  disciple  inquired  if  he 
should  pray  for  him,  meaning  the  making  of  offer- 
ings at  some  temple.  Confucius  answered,  "I  have 
long  prayed,"  or  "I  have  long  been  in  the  habit 
of  praying." 

In  letters  he  described  himself  as  an  "editor,  not 
an  author,"  meaning  that  he  had  revised  the  works 
of  the  ancients,  but  had  published  nothing  of  his  own. 
Out  of  their  poetry  he  culled  three  hundred  odes  and 
declared  that  "purity  of  thought"  might  be  stamped 
on  the  whole  collection.  Into  a  confused  mass  of 
traditional  ceremonies  be  brought  something  like 
order,  making  the  Chinese  (if  a  trifle  too  ceremonious) 
the  politest  people  on  earth.  Out  of  their  myths  and  '' 
chronicles  he  extracted  a  trustworthy  history,  and 
by  his  treatment  of  vice  he  made  princes  tremble, 
lest  their  heads  should  be  exposed  on  the  gibbet  of 
history.  He  gave  much  time  to  editing  the  music  of 
the  ancients,  but  his  work  in  that  line  has  perished. 
This,  however,  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  very  great  loss, 
in  view  of  the  rude  condition  in  which  Chinese  music 
is  still  found.  However  deficient  his  knowledge  of 
the  art,  his  passion  for  music  was  extraordinary. 
After  hearing  a  fine  performance  "he  was  unable  for 


92  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

three  months  to  enjoy  his  food."  A  fifth  task  was  the 
editing  of  the  Yih-King*  the  book  of  divination  com- 
piled by  Wen-wang.  How  thoroughly  he  believed 
in  it  is  apparent  from  his  saying,  "Should  it 
please  Heaven  to  grant  me  five  or  ten  years  to  study 
this  book,  I  would  not  be  in  danger  of  falling  into 
great  errors."  He  meant  that  he  would  then  be 
able  to  shape  [his  conduct  by  the  calculation  of 
chances. 

Great  as  were  his  labours  in  laying  the  foundation 
of  literary  culture,  the  impression  made  by  his  personal 
intercourse  and  by  his  collected  sayings  has  been  ten- 
fold more  influential.  They  form  the  substance  of 
the  Four  Books  which,  from  a  similar  numerical  coinci- 
dence, the  Chinese  are  fond  of  comparing  with  our 
Four  Gospels.  Confucius  certainly  gives  the  Golden 
Rule  as  the  essence  of  his  teaching.  True,  he  puts  it 
in  a  negative  form,  "Do  not  unto  others  what  you 
would  not  have  them  do  to  you";  but  he  also  says, 
"My  doctrine  is  comprehended  in  two  words,  chung 
and  shu.'"  The  former  denotes  fidelity;  the  latter  sig- 
nifies putting  oneself  in  the  place  of  another,  but  it 
falls  short  of  that  active  charity  which  has  changed  the 
face  of  the  world. 

It  were  easy  to  point  out  Confucius'  limitations  and 
mistakes;  yet  on  the  whole  his  merits  were  such  that 
his  people  can  hardly  be  blamed  for  the  exaggerated 
honours  which  they  show  to  his  memory.  They  style 
him  the  "model  teacher  of  all  ages,"  but  they  do  not 
invoke  him  as  a  tutelary  deity,  nor  do  they  represent 

*This  and  the  preceding  are  the  Five  Classics,  which,  like  the  five  books 
of  Moses,  lie  at  the  root  of  a  nation's  religion  and  learning. 


•  ■  ■«  >  «r*  <.«.*-** 
■ .!.  'i  f  <i  jt-.<  ^  .'•' 

^  f,   ,.  «i  «    '^  H  •*(  -i 
(   1  i»^<ii,f  J  '--.•■ 


.,^  '•.j'iJ.Hfii-i-* 
>'.  i»  "i  l  >.  A  -i  -IV 


i    f  3  T-  «1  «  -■*  * 
t  r-{55-tT«.A*.' 


/.ax*. +1*71 
-  l  +  t.' 


,  '.  ,1.1  If  ■*  ii't 


f\  -M  ^ 


§  I?,  M  ^'  n  n  ^  is\^v^3 , 
Hi.  ^  ft  f^  f \  ^  Pi  t  =? 

M I  ■»  I  ■•;?  «  ^  /?i  ffi 


Ifi 


,      ,,J    »1    Tt  A 


pi^mm'^^ 


^\m^Qf«m 


MONUMENT  OF  TA-VU 


THE  SAGES  OF  CHINA  93 

him  by  an  image.     Excessively  honorific,  their  wor- 
ship of  Confucius  is  not  idolatry. 

MENCIUS 

A  hundred  years  later  Mencius  was  bom,  and  re- 
ceived his  doctrine  through  the  grandson  of  the  Sage. 
More  eloquent  than  his  great  master,  more  bold  in 
rebuking  the  vices  of  princes,  he  was  less  original. 
One  specimen  of  his  teaching  must  suffice.  One  of 
the  princes  asking  him,  "  How  do  you  know  that  I  have 
it  in  me  to  become  a  good  ruler?"  he  replied,  "I  am 
told  that,  seeing  the  extreme  terror  of  an  ox  that  was 
being  led  to  the  altar,  you  released  it  and  commanded 
a  sheep  to  be  offered  in  its  stead.  The  ox  was  before 
your  eyes  and  you  pitied  it;  the  sheep  was  not  before 
your  eyes  and  you  had  no  pity  on  it.  Now  with  such 
a  heart  if  you  would  only  think  of  your  people,  so  as 
to  bring  them  before  your  eyes,  you  might  become  the 
best  of  rulers." 

Mencius  lost  his  father  in  his  infancy,  but  his  mother 
showed  rare  good  sense  in  the  bringing  up  of  her  only 
child.  Living  near  a  butcher,  she  noticed  that  the  boy 
mimicked  the  cries  of  the  pigs.  She  then  removed  to 
the  gate  of  a  cemetery;  but,  noticing  that  the  child 
changed  his  tune  and  mocked  the  wailing  of  mourners, 
she  struck  her  tent  and  took  up  her  abode  near  a  high 
school.  There  she  observed  with  joy  that  he  learned 
the  manners  and  acquired  the  tastes  of  a  student. 
Perceiving,  however,  that  he  was  in  danger  of  be- 
coming lazy  and  dilatory,  she  cut  the  warp  of  her  web 
and  said,  "  My  son,  this  is  what  you  are  doing  with 
the  web  of  life." 


94  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

The  tomb  of  each  of  these  sages  is  in  the  keeping 
of  one  of  his  descendants,  who  enjoys  the  emoluments 
of  a  hereditary  noble.  Mencius  himself  says  of  the 
master  whom  he  never  saw,  "Since  men  were  bom 
on  earth  there  has  been  no  man  like  Confucius." 

LAO-TSE 

I  cannot  close  this  chapter  without  a  word  or  two 
on  Lao-tse,  the  founder  of  Taoism.  He  bore  the  family 
name  of  Li,  "plum-tree,"  either  from  the  fact  that 
his  cottage  was  in  a  garden  or  possibly  because, 
like  the  Academics,  he  placed  his  school  in  a  grove 
of  plum-trees.  The  name  by  which  he  is  now 
known  signifies  "old  master,"  probably  because  he 
was  older  than  Confucius.  The  latter  is  said  to 
have  paid  him  a  visit  to  inquire  about  rites  and  cere- 
monies; but  Lao-tse,  with  his  love  of  solitude  and 
abstract  speculation,  seems  not  to  have  exerted  much 
influence  on  the  mind  of  the  rising  philosopher.  In 
allusion  to  him,  Confucius  said,  "Away  from  men 
there  is  no  philosophy — no  too." 

Less  honoured  by  the  official  class,  Lao-tse's  in- 
fluence with  the  masses  of  China  has  been  scarcely 
less  than  that  of  his  younger  rival.  Like  the  other 
two  sages  he,  too,  has  to-day  a  representative,  who 
enjoys  an  official  status  as  high  priest  of  the  Taoist 
sect.  Chang  Tien-shi  dwells  in  a  stately  palace  on 
the  summit  of  the  Tiger  and  Dragon  Mountain,  in 
Kiangsi,  as  the  head  of  one  of  the  three  religions. 
But,  alas!  the  sublime  teachings  of  the  founder  of 
Taoism  have  degenerated  into  a  contemptible  mixture 
of  jugglery  and  witchcraft. 


M 
u 


-1 
< 

< 
W 

O 


t/5 

O 

O 

a* 


o 

O 

Q 


< 


o 

H 
O 

a 

< 
73 


I 


OF   THE 

UNIVERS/TY 

OF 


THE  SAGES  OF  CHINA  95 

Not  till  five  centuries  later  did  Buddhism  enter 
China  and  complete  the  triad  of  religions — a  triad 
strangely  inharmonious;  indeed  one  can  scarcely  con- 
ceive of  three  creeds  more  radically  antagonistic. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

THE  WARRING  STATES 

Five  Dictators — Diplomacy  and  Strategy — A  Brave  En- 
voy— Heroes  Reconciled — Ts'in  Extinguishes  the 
House  of  Chou 

IN  THE  first  half  of  the  Chou  dynasty  the  ma- 
chinery moved  with  such  regularity  that  Con- 
fucius could  think  of  no  form  of  government  more 
admirable,  saying,  "The  policy  of  the  future  may  be 
foretold  for  a  hundred  generations — it  will  be  to  fol- 
low the  House  of  Chou."  The  latter  half  was  a  period 
of  misrule  and  anarchy. 

Ambitions  and  jealousies  led  to  petty  wars.  The 
King  being  too  feeble  to  repress  them,  these  petty 
wars  grew  into  vast  combinations  like  the  leagues  of 
modern  Europe.  Five  of  the  states  acquired  at 
different  times  such  a  preponderance  that  their  rulers 
are  styled  Wu  Pa,  the  "five  dictators."  One  of  these, 
Duke  Hwan  of  western  Shantung,  is  famous  for  having 
nine  times  convoked  the  States-General.  The  dictator 
always  presided  at  such  meetings  and  he  was  recognised 
as  the  real  sovereign — as  were  the  mayors  of  the  palace 
in  France  in  the  Merovingian  epoch,  or  the  shoguns 
in  Japan  during  the  long  period  in  which  the  Mikado 
was  called  the  "spiritual  emperor." 

The   legitimate   sovereign   still   sat   on   his   throne 

96 


THE  WARRING  STATES  97 

in  the  central  state;  but  he  complained  that  his  only 
function  was  to  offer  sacrifices.  The  Chinese  dictator- 
ship was  not  hereditary,  or  the  world  might  have 
witnessed  an  exact  parallel  to  the  duplicate  sovereignty 
in  Japan,  where  one  held  the  power  and  the  other  re- 
tained the  title  for  seven  hundred  years. 

In  China  the  shifting  of  power  from  hand  to  hand 
made  those  four  centuries  an  age  of  diplomacy.  When- 
ever some  great  baron  was  suspected  of  aspiring  to 
the  leadership,  combinations  were  formed  to  ctirb 
his  ambitions;  embassies  sped  from  court  to  court; 
and  armies  were  marshalled  in  the  field.  Envoys 
became  noted  for  courage  and  cunning,  and  generals 
acquired  fame  by  their  skill  in  handling  large  bodies 
of  soldiers.  Diplomacy  became  an  art,  and  war  a 
science. 

An  international  code  to  control  the  intercourse  of 
states  began  to  take  shape;  but  the  diplomat  was  not 
embarrassed  by  a  multiplicity  of  rules.  In  negotiations 
individual  character  counted  for  more  than  it  does 
at  the  present  day;  nor  must  it  be  supposed  that  in 
the  absence  of  our  modern  artillery  there  was  no 
room  for  generalship.  On  the  contrary,  as  battles 
were  not  decided  by  the  weight  of  metal,  there  was 
more  demand  for  strategy. 

All  this  was  going  on  in  Greece  at  this  very  epoch; 
and,  as  Plutarch  indulges  in  parallels,  we  might  point 
to  compeers  of  Themistocles  and  Epaminondas.  The 
cause  which  in  the  two  countries  led  to  this  state  of 
things  was  the  existence  of  a  family  of  states  with  a 
common  language  and  similar  institutions;  but  in 
the   Asiatic   empire  the  theatre  was  vastly  more  ex- 


98  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

tensive,  and  the  operations  in  politics  and  war  on  a 
grander  scale. 

To  the  honour  of  the  Chinese  it  must  be  admitted 
that  they  showed  themselves  more  civilised  than  the 
Greeks.  The  Persian  invasion  was  provuked  by  the 
murder  of  ambassadors  by  the  Athenians.  Of  such 
an  act  there  is  no  recorded  instance  among  the  warring 
states  of  China.  It  was  reserved  for  our  own  day 
to  witness  in  Peking  that  exhibition  of  Tartar  ferocity. 
The  following  two  typical  incidents  from  the  volumin- 
ous chronicles  of  those  times  may  be  appropriately 
presented  here: 

A   BRAVE    ENVOY 

The  Prince  of  Ts'in,  a  semi-barbarous  state  in  the 
northwest,  answering  to  Macedonia  in  Greece,  had 
offered  to  give  fifteen  cities  for  a  kohinoor,  a  jewel 
belonging  to  the  Prince  of  Chao  (not  Chou).  Lin 
Sian  Ju  was  sent  to  deliver  the  jewel  and  to  complete 
the  transaction.  The  conditions  not  being  complied 
with,  he  boldly  put  the  jewel  into  his  bosom  and 
returned  to  his  own  state.  That  he  was  allowed  to 
do  so — does  it  not  speak  as  much  for  the  morality 
of  Ts'in  as  for  the  courage  of  Lm?  The  latter  is  the 
accepted  type  of  a  brave  and  faithful  envoy. 

HEROES    RECONCILED 

Jealous  of  his  fame,  Lien  P'o,  a  general  of  Chao, 
announced  that  he  would  kill  Lin  at  sight.  The 
latter  took  pains  to  avoid  a  meeting.  Lien  P'o,  taxing 
him  with  cowardice,  sent  him  a  challenge,  to  which 
Lin  responded,   "You  and   I   are  the  pillars  of  our 


THE  WARRING  STATES  99 

state.  If  either  falls,  our  country  is  lost.  This  is 
why  I  have  shunned  an  encounter."  So  impressed 
was  the  general  with  the  spirit  of  this  reply  that  he 
took  a  rod  in  his  hand  and  presented  himself  at  the 
door  of  his  rival,  not  to  thrash  the  latter,  but  to  beg 
that  he  himself  might  be  castigated.  Forgetting 
their  feud  the  two  joined  hands  to  build  up  their 
native  state  much  as  Aristides  and  Themistocles 
buried  their  enmity  in  view  of  the  war  with  Persia. 

As  the  Athenian  orators  thundered  against  Macedon 
so  the  statesmen  of  China  formed  leagues  and  counter- 
plots for  and  against  the  rising  power  of  the  north- 
west. The  type  of  patient,  shrewd  diplomacy  is 
Su  Ts'in  who,  at  the  cost  of  incredible  hardships  in 
journeying  from  court  to  court,  succeeded  in  bringing 
six  of  the  leading  states  into  line  to  bar  the  southward 
movement  of  their  common  foe.  His  machinations 
were  all  in  vain,  however;  for  not  only  was  his  ultimate 
success  thwarted  by  the  counterplots  of  Chang  Yee, 
an  equally  able  diplomatist,  but  his  reputation,  like  that 
of  Parnell  in  our  own  times,  was  ruined  by  his  own 
passions.  The  rising  power  of  Ts'in,  like  a  glacier, 
was  advancing  by  slow  degrees  to  universal  sway. 
In  the  next  generation  it  absorbed  all  the  feudal 
states.  Chau-siang  subjugated  Tung-chou-Kiun,  the 
last  monarch  of  the  Chou  dynasty,  and  the  House  of 
Chou  was  exterminated  by  Chwang-siang,  who,  how- 
ever, enjoyed  the  supreme  power  for  only  three  years 
(249-246  B.  c). 


CHAPTER  XIX 

THE  HOUSE  OF  TS'IN,  246-206  B.  C. 

(2  Emperors) 

TsHn  Shi-hwang-ti,  "Emperor  First'' — The  Great  Wall 
— The  Centralised  Monarchy — The  title  Hwang- 
ii — Origin  of  the  name  China — Burning  of  the 
Books — Expedition  to  Japan — Revolution  Places 
the  House  of  Han  on  the  Throne 

VIEWED  in  the  light  of  philosophy,"  says  Schiller, 
"Cain  killed  Abel  because  Abel's  sheep  tres- 
passed on  Cain's  cornfield."  From  that  day  to  this 
farmers  and  shepherds  have  not  been  able  to  live 
together  in  peace.  A  monument  of  that  eternal  con- 
flict is  the  Great  Wall  of  China.  Like  the  Roman 
Wall  in  North  Britain,  to  compare  great  things  with 
small,  its  object  was  not  to  keep  out  the  Tartars  but 
to  reenforce  the  vigilance  of  the  military  pickets. 
That  end  it  seems  to  have  accomplished  for  a  long 
time.  It  was,  the  Chinese  say,  the  destruction  of  one 
generation  and  the  salvation  of  many.  We  shall  soon 
see  how  it  came  to  be  a  mere  geographical  expression. 
For  our  present  purpose  it  may  also  be  regarded  as  a 
chronological  landmark,  dividing  ancient  from  medi- 
aeval China. 

With  the  House  of  Chou  the  old  feudal  divisions 
disappeared  forever.     The  whole  country  was  brought 


100 


HOUSE  OF  TS'IN  loi: 

under  the  direct  sway  of  one  emperor  who,  for  the 
first  time  in  the  history  of  the  people,  had  built  up  a 
dominion  worthy  of  that  august  title.  This  was  the 
achievement  of  Yin  Cheng,  the  Prince  of  Ts'in.  He 
thereupon  assumed  the  new  style  of  Hwang-ti.  Hwangs 
and  Tis  were  no  novelty;  but  the  combination  made 
it  a  new  coinage  and  justified  the  additional  appellation 
of  "the  First,"  or  Shi- hwang-ti.  Four  imperishable 
monuments  perpetuate  his  memory:  the  Great  Wall, 
the  centralised  monarchy,  the  title  Hwang-ti,  and  the 
name  of  China  itself — the  last  derived  from  a  prin- 
cipality which  under  him  expanded  to  embrace  the 
empire.  Where  is  there  another  conqueror  in  the' 
annals  of  the  world  who  has  such  solid  claims  to  ever- 
lasting renown?  Alexander  overthrew  many  nations; 
but  he  set  up  nothing  permanent.  Julius  Cajsar 
instituted  the  Roman  Empire;  but  its  duration  was 
ephemeral  in  comparison  with  that  of  the  empire 
founded  by  Shi-hwang-ti,  the  builder  of  the  Wall. 

Though  Shi-hwang-ti  completed  it,  the  wall  was 
not  the  work  of  his  reign  alone.  Similarly  the 
triumphs  of  his  arms  and  arts  were  due  in  large 
measure  to  his  predecessors,  who  for  centuries  had 
aspired  to  universal  sway.  Conscious  of  inferiority 
in  culture,  they  welcomed  the  aid  and  rewarded  the 
services  of  men  of  talent  from  every  quarter.  Some 
came  as  penniless  adventurers  from  rival  or  hostile 
states  and  were  raised  to  the  highest  honours. 

Six  great  chancellors  stand  conspicuous  as  having 
introduced  law  and  order  into  a  rude  society,  and 
paved  the  way  for  final  success.  Every  one  of  these 
was  a  "foreigner."     The  princes  whom  they  served 


102  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

deserve  no  small  praise  for  having  the  good  sense  to 
appreciate  them  and  the  coiirage  to  follow  their  advice. 
Of  some  of  these  it  might  be  said,  as  Voltaire  remarked 
of  Peter  the  Great,  "They  civilised  their  people,  but 
themselves  were  savages."  The  world  forgets  how 
much  the  great  czar  was  indebted  for  education  and 
guidance  to  Le  Fort,  a  Genevese  soldier  of  fortune. 
Pondering  that  history  one  is  able  to  gauge  the  merits 
of  those  foreign  chancellors,  perhaps  also  to  under- 
stand what  foreigners  have  done  for  the  rulers  of  China 
in  our  day. 

Shi-hwang-ti  was  the  real  founder  of  the  Chinese 
Empire.  He  is  one  of  the  heroes  of  history;  yet  no 
man  in  the  long  list  of  dynasties  is  so  abused  and 
niisrepresented  by  Chinese  writers.  They  make  him 
a  bastard,  a  debauchee,  and  a  fool.  To  this  day  he 
is  the  object  of  undying  hatred  to  every  one  who  can 
hold  a  pen.  Why?  it  may  be  asked.  Simply  be- 
cause he  burned  the  books  and  persecuted  the  disciples 
of  Confucius.  Those  two  things,  well-nigh  incredible 
to  us,   are  to  the  Chinese  utterly  incomprehensible. 

Li-Sze,  a  native  of  Yen,  was  his  chancellor,  a  genius 
more  daring  and  far-sighted  than  any  of  the  other 
five.  The  welding  together  of  the  feudal  states  into 
a  compact  unity  was  his  darling  scheme,  as  it  was 
that  of  his  master.  "Never,"  he  said,  "can  you  be 
sure  that  those  warring  states  will  not  reappear,  so 
long  as  the  books  of  Confucius  are  studied  in  the 
schools;  for  in  them  feudalism  is  consecrated  as  a 
divine  institution."  "Then  let  them  be  burned,"  said 
the  tyrant. 

The  adherents  of  the  Sage  were  ejected  from  the 


HOUSE  OF  TS'IN  103 

schools,  and  their  teachings  proscribed.  This  harsh 
treatment  and  the  search  for  their  books  naturally 
gave  rise  to  counterplots.  ''Put  them  to  death," 
said  the  tyrant;  and  they  went  to  the  block,  not  like 
Christian  marytrs  for  religious  convictions,  but  like 
the  Girondists  of  France  for  political  principles.  Their 
followers  offer  the  silly  explanation  that  the  books 
were  destroyed  that  the  world  might  never  know  that 
there  had  been  other  dynasties,  and  the  scholars 
slaughtered  or  buried  alive  to  prevent  the  reproduction 
of  the  books. 

The  First  Hwang-ti  did  not  confine  his  ambition  to 
China.  He  sent  a  fleet  to  Japan;  and  those  isles  of 
the  Orient  came  to  view  for  the  first  time  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  world.  The  fleet  carried,  it  is  said,  a  crew 
of  three  thousand  lads  and  lasses.  It  never  returned; 
but  the  traditions  of  Japan  affirm  that  it  arrived, 
and  the  islanders  ascribe  their  initiation  into  Chinese 
literattire  to  their  invasion  by  that  festive  company — 
a  company  not  unlike  that  with  which  Bacchus  was 
represented  as  making  the  conquest  of  India.  Their 
further  acquaintance  with  China  and  its  sages  was 
obtained  through  Korea,  which  was  long  a  middle 
point  of  communication  between  the  two  countries. 
It  was,  in  fact,  from  the  Shantung  promontory,  near 
to  Korea,  that  this  flotilla  of  videttes  was  dispatched. 

What  was  the  real  object  of  that  strange  expedition? 
Chinese  authors  assert  that  it  was  sent  in  search  of 
the  "elixir  of  life,"  but  do  they  not  distort  everything 
in  the  history  of  the  First  Hwang-ti?  The  great 
monarch  was,  in  fact,  a  devout  believer  in  the  fables 
of  Taoism,  among  which  were  stories  of  the  Islands  of 


I04  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

the  Blest,  and  of  a  fountain  of  immortality,  such  as 
eighteen  centuries  later  stimulated  the  researches  of 
Ponce  de  Leon.  The  study  of  alchemy  was  in  full 
blast  among  the  Chinese  at  that  time.  It  probably 
sprang  from  Taoism;  but,  in  my  opinion,  the  ambitious 
potentate,  sighing  for  other  worlds  to  conquer,  sent 
that  jolly  troop  as  the  vanguard  of  an  army. 

In  spite,  however,  of  elixirs  of  life  and  fountains  of 
youth,  death  put  an  end  to  his  conquests  when  he 
had  enjoyed  the  full  glories  of  imperial  power  for  only 
twelve  years.  His  son  reigned  two  years;  and  the 
first  of  the  imperial  dynasties  came  to  an  end — over- 
turned by  a  revolution  which  placed  the  House  of 
Han  on  the  vacant  throne. 


CHAPTER  XX 

THE  HOUSE  OF  HAN,  206— B.  C— 220  A.  D. 

(24  Emperors,  2  Usurpers) 

Liu-pang  Founds  Illustrious  Dynasty — Restoration  of 
the  Books — A  Female  Reign — The  Three  Religions 
— Revival  of  Letters — Sze-ma  Ts'ien,  the  Herodotus 
of  China — Conquests  of  the  Hans 

THE  burning  of  the  books  and  the  slaughter  of  the 
scholars  had  filled  the  public  mind  with  horror. 
The  oppressions  occasioned  by  the  building  of  the 
Great  Wall  had  excited  a  widespread  discontent; 
and  Liu-pang,  a  rough  soldier  of  Central  China,  took 
advantage  of  this  state  of  things  to  dispossess  the  feeble 
heir  of  the  tyrant.  He  founded  a  dynasty  which  is 
reckoned  among  the  most  illustrious  in  the  annals 
of  the  Empire.  It  takes  the  name  of  Han  from  the 
river  on  the  banks  of  which  it  rose  to  power.  When 
Liu-pang  was  securely  seated  on  the  throne  one  of  his 
ministers  proposed  that  he  should  open  schools  and 
encourage  learning.  "Learning,"  exclaimed  the  Em- 
peror, ' '  I  have  none  of  it  myself,  nor  do  I  feel  the  need 
of  it.  I  got  the  empire  on  horseback."  "But  can  you 
govern  the  empire  on  horseback?  That  is  the  ques- 
tion," replied  the  minister.  To  conciliate  the  favour 
of  the  learned,  the  Emperor  not  only  rescinded  the 
persecuting  edicts,  but  caused  search  to  be  made  for 

I  OS 


io6  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

the  lost  books,  and  instituted  sacrificial  rites  in  honour 
of  the  Sage. 

Old  men  were  still  living  who  had  committed  those 
books  to  memory  in  boyhood.  One  such,  Fu-seng 
by  name,  was  noted  for  his  erudition;  and  from  his 
capacious  memory  a  large  portion  of  the  sacred  canon 
was  reproduced,  being  written  from  his  dictation. 
The  copies  thus  obtained  were  of  course  not  free  from 
error.  Happily  a  somewhat  completer  copy,  engraved 
on  bamboo  tablets,  was  discovered  in  the  wall  of  a 
house  belonging  to  the  Confucian  family.  Yet  down 
to  the  present  day  the  Chinese  classics  bear  traces  of 
the  tyrant's  fire.  Portions  are  wanting  and  the  lacunae 
are  always  ascribed  to  the  "fires  of  Ts'in."  The 
first  chapter  of  the  Great  Study  closes  with  the  preg- 
nant words,  ' '  The  source  of  knowledge  is  in  the  study 
of  things."  Not  a  syllable  is  added  on  that  prolific 
text.  A  note  informs  the  reader  that  there  was  a 
chapter  on  the  subject,  but  that  it  has  been  lost. 
Chinese  scholars,  when  taxed  with  the  barrenness  of 
later  ages  in  every  branch  of  science,  are  wont  to  make 
the  naive  reply,  "Yes,  and  no  wonder — how  could  it 
be  otherwise  when  the  Sage's  chapter  on  that  subject 
has  been  lost?" 

After  the  second  reign,  that  of  Hwei-ti,  we  have 
the  first  instance  in  Chinese  history  of  a  woman  seizing 
the  reins  of  government.  The  Empress  Lu  made 
herself  supreme,  and  such  were  her  talents  that  she 
held  the  Empire  in  absolute  subjection  for  eight  years. 
Like  Jezebel  she  "destroyed  all  the  seed  royal," 
and  filled  the  various  offices  with  her  kindred  and 
favourites.     At  her  death  they  were  butchered  with- 


HOUSE  OF  HAN  107 

out  mercy,  and  a  male  heir  to  the  throne  was  pro- 
claimed. His  posthumous  title  Wen-ti,  meaning  the 
"learned"  or  "patron  of  letters,"  marks  the  progress 
made  by  the  revival  of  learning. 

One  might  imagine  that  these  literary  emperors 
would  have  been  satisfied  with  the  recovery  of  the 
Confucian  classics;  but  no,  a  rumour  reached  them 
that  "there  are  sages  in  the  West."  The  West  was 
India.  An  embassy  was  sent,  66  a.  d.,  by  Ming-ti  to 
import  books  and  bonzes.  The  triad  of  religions 
was  thus  completed. 

Totally  diverse  in  spirit  and  essence,  the  three  re- 
ligions could  hardly  be  expected  to  harmonise  or  com- 
bine. Confucianism  exalts  letters,  and  lays  stress  on 
ethics  to  the  neglect  of  the  spiritual  world.  Taoism 
inculcates  physical  discipline;  but  in  practice  it  has 
become  the  mother  of  degrading  superstition — dealing 
in  magic  and  necromancy.  Buddhism  saps  the  founda- 
tions of  the  family  and  enjoins  celibacy  as  the  road  to 
virtue.  Metempsychosis  is  its  leading  doctrine,  and 
to  "think  on  nothing"  its  mental  discipline.  It  for- 
bids a  flesh  diet  and  deprecates  scholarship.  Through 
imperial  patronage  it  acquired  a  footing  in  China,  but 
it  was  long  before  it  felt  at  home  there.  As  late  as  the 
eighth  century  Han  Yu,  the  greatest  writer  of  the  age, 
ridiculed  the  relics  of  Buddha  and  called  on  his  people 
to  "bum  their  books,  close  their  temples,  and  make 
laity  of  their  monks." 

Yet  Buddhism  seems  to  have  met  a  want.  It  has 
fostered  a  sympathy  for  animal  life,  and  serv^ed  as  a 
protest  against  the  Sadducean  tenets  of  the  lettered 
class.     It  long  ago  became  so  rooted  in  the  minds  of 


io8  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

the  illiterate,  who  form  nine-tenths  of  the  population, 
that  China  may  be  truly  described  as  the  leading  Bud- 
dhist country  of  the  globe.* 

Buddhist  monasteries  are  to  be  seen  on  every  hand. 
They  are  often  subsidised  by  the  state;  and  even  at 
the  tomb  of  Confucius  a  temple  was  erected  called  the 
"Hall  of  the  Three  Religions."     In  it  the  image  of 

*THE  APOTHEOSIS  OF  MERCY 

A    LEGEND   OF    KUANYIN    PUSA — IN  NORTHERN    BUDDHISM 

Two  images  adorn  this  mountain  shrine, 
Not  marble  chiselled  out  by  Grecian  art. 
But  carved  from  wood  with  Oriental  skill. 
In  days  of  yore  adored  by  pilgrim  throngs, 
They  languish  now  without  a  worshipper. 

High  up  a  winding  flight  of  stony  steps 

See  Gautama  upon  his  lotus  throne! 

More  near  the  gate,  her  lovely  face  downcast, 

Sits  Mercy's  Goddess,  pity  in  her  eye. 

To  gfreet  the  weary  climbers  and  to  hear 

Their  many- coloured  tales  of  woe  and  want. 

The  Buddha,  in  sublime  repose,  sees  not 

His  prostrate  worshippers;  and  they  to  him 

No  prayer  address,  save  hymns  of  grateful  praise. f 

'Twas  he  who  for  a  blinded  world  sought  out 

The  secret  of  escape  from  misery; 

The  splendour  of  a  royal  court  resigned, 

He  found  in  poverty  a  higher  realm! 

Yet  greater  far  the  victory,  when  he  broke 

The  chain  of  Fate  and  spurned  the  wheel  of  change. 

To  suffering  humanity  he  says, 

"Tread  in  my  steps:  You,  too,  may  find  release." 

Like  him,  the  Pusa  was  of  princely  birth. 

But  not  like  him  did  she  forsake  a  throne, 

Nor  yet  like  him  did  she  consent  to  see 

Nirvana's  pearly  gates  behind  her  close. 

A  field  for  charity  her  regal  state. 

Her  path  with  ever-blooming  flowers  she  strewed, 

Her  sympathy  to  joy  a  relish  gave. 

To  sorrows  manifold  it  brought  relief. 

Forgetting  self  she  lived  for  others'  weal 

Till  higher  than  Meru  her  merit  rose.  J 

tSuch  as  Om  mani  padmi  hum  ("O  the  jewel  in  the  lotus"), 
tjlt.  Meru,  the  Indian  Olympus. 


HOUSE  OF  HAN  109 

Buddha  is  said  to  have  occupied  the  seat  of  honour, 
but  prior  to  the  date  of  my  visit  it  had  been  demolished. 

Each  of  these  reUgions  has  a  hierarchy:  that  of 
Confucius  with  a  lineal  descendant  of  the  Sage  at  its 
head;  that  of  Lao-tse  with  Chang  Tien-shi,  the  arch- 
magician,  as  its  high  priest;  and,  higher  than  all,  that 
of  Buddha  with  the  Grand  Lama  of  Tibet. 

Under  the  house  of  Han  a  beginning  was  made  in 
the  institution  of  civil  service  examinations — a  system 
which  has  continued  to  dominate  the  Chinese  intellect 
down  to  our  time;  but  it  was  not  fully  developed  until 
the  dynasty  of  T'ang.  Belles-lettres  made  a  marked 
advance.     The  poetry  of  the  period  is  more  finished 

At  length  a  Voice  celestial  smote  her  ear. 
"Nirvana's  portal  to  thee  open  stands, 
The  crown  of  Buddhaship  is  thine  by  right. 
No  wave  of  care  that  shore  can  ever  reach, 
No  cry  of  pain  again  thine  ear  assail ; 
But  fixed  in  solitary  bliss  thou 'It  see 
The  circling  ages  rolling  at  thy  feet! " 

"Shall  I  then  have  no  tidings  of  mankind? 
Such  heaven  a  throne  of  glittering  ice  would  be. 
That  changeless  bliss  to  others  thou  may'st  give. 
Happiest  am  I  th'  unhappy  to  upraise. 
Oh  for  a  thousand  hands  J  the  task  to  ply! 
To  succour  and  relieve  be  mine,"  she  said, 
"Bought  though  it  be  by  share  of  suffering. 
Turn  then  the  wheel,**  and  back  to  earth  again." 

From  out  the  blue  came  down  the  Voice  once  more : 
' '  Thy  great  refusal  wins  a  higher  prize ; 
A  kingdom  new  thy  charity  hath  gained. tt 
And  there  shalt  thou,  the  Queen  of  Mercy,  reign, 
Aloof  from  pain  or  weakness  of  thine  own, 
With  quickened  sense  to  hear  and  power  to  save." 

Fair  image  thou!  Almost  I  worship  thee. 
Frail  shadow  of  a  Christ  that  hears  and  feels! 

W.  A.  P.  M. 

PEARL    GROTTO,    NEAR   PEKING,   AugUSt  8,    I906. 

J  She  IS  often  so  represented,  as  the  symbol  of  a  present  Providence. 

**  Lunhui,  the  wheel  of  destiny,  within  which  birth  and  death  succeed  without  end  or 
interval. 

tt  She  escapes  the  wheel,  but  remains  on  the  border  of  Nirvana,  where,  as  her  name 
signifies,  she  "hears  the  prayers  of  men." 


no  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

than  that  of  the  Chous.  Prose  composition,  too,  is 
vigorous  and  lucid.  The  muse  of  history  claims  the 
place  of  honour.  Sze-ma  Ts'ien,  the  Herodotus  of 
China,  was  born  in  this  period.  A  glory  to  his  country, 
the  treatment  Sze-ma  Ts'ien  received  at  the  hands  of 
his  people  exposes  their  barbarism.  He  had  recom- 
mended Li  Ling  as  a  suitable  commander  to  lead  an 
expedition  against  the  Mongols.  Li  Ling  surrendered 
to  the  enemy,  and  Sze-ma  Ts'ien,  as  his  sponsor,  was 
liable  to  suffer  death  in  his  stead.  Being  allowed  an 
alternative,  he  chose  to  submit  to  the  disgrace  of 
emasculation,  in  order  that  he  might  live  to  complete  his 
monumental  work — a  memorial  better  than  sons  and 
daughters.  A  pathetic  letter  of  the  unfortunate  general, 
who  never  dared  to  return  to  China,  is  preserved 
amongst  the  choice  specimens  of  prose  composition. 

Not  content  with  the  Great  Wall  for  their  northern 
limit  nor  with  the  "Great  River"  for  their  southern 
boundary,  the  Hans  attempted  to  advance  their 
frontiers  in  both  directions.  In  the  north  they  added 
the  province  of  Kansuh,  and  in  the  other  direction  they 
extended  their  operations  as  far  south  as  the  borders 
of  Annam;  but  they  did  not  make  good  the  possession 
of  the  whole  of  the  conquered  territory.  Szechuen  and 
Hunan  were,  however,  added  to  their  domain.  The 
latter  seems  to  have  served  as  a  penal  colony  rather 
than  an  integral  portion  of  the  Empire.  A  poem  by 
Kiayi,  an  exiled  statesman  (200  b.  c),  is  dated  from 
Changsha,  its  capital.* 

In  the  south  the  savage  tribes  by  which  the  Chinese 


*  See  "Chinese  Legends  and  Other  Poems,"  by  W.  A.  P.  Martin. 


HOUSE  OF  HAN  iii 

were  opposed  made  a  deep  impression  on  the  character 
of  the  people,  but  left  no  record  in  history.  Not  so 
with  the  powerful  foe  encountered  in  the  north.  Under 
the  title  of  Shanyu,  he  was  a  forerunner  of  the  Grand 
Khan  of  Tartary — claiming  equality  with  the  emper- 
ors of  China  and  exchanging  embassies  on  equal  terms. 
His  people,  known  as  the  Hiunghu,  are  supposed  to 
have  been  ancestors  of  the  Huns. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

THE  THREE  KINGDOMS,  THE  NAN-PEH  CHAO, 
AND  THE  SUI  DYNASTY,  214—618  A.  D. 

The  States  of  Wei,  Wu,  and  Shuh — A  Popular 
Historical  Romance — Chu-koh  Liang,  an  Inventive 
Genius — The  "three  P's,  "Pen,  Paper,  Printing — 
The  Sui  Dynasty 

AFTER  four  centuries  of  undisputed  sway,  the 
sceptre  is  seen  ready  to  fall  from  the  nerveless 
hands  of  feeble  monarchs.  Eunuchs  usurp  authority, 
and  the  hydra  of  rebellion  raises  its  many  heads. 
Minor  aspirants  are  easily  extinguished;  but  three 
of  them  survive  a  conflict  of  twenty  years,  and  lay 
the  foundation  of  short-lived  dynasties. 

The  noble  structure  erected  by  the  Ts'ins  and  con- 
solidated by  the  Hans  began  to  crumble  at  the  be- 
ginning of  its  fifth  century  of  existence.  In  221  a.  d. 
its  fragments  were  removed  to  three  cities,  each  of 
which  claimed  to  be  the  seat  of  empire.  The  state  of 
Wei  was  founded  by  Tsao  Tsao,  with  its  capital  at 
Lo-yang,  the  seat  of  the  Hans.  He  had  the  further 
advantage,  as  mayor  of  the  palace,  of  holding  in  his 
power  the  feeble  emperor  Hwan-ti,  the  last  of  the 
house  of  Han.  The  state  of  Wu,  embracing  the  prov- 
inces of  Kiangsu,  Kiangsi,  and  Chehkiang,  was  estab- 
lished by  Siun  Kien,  a  man  of  distinguished  ability 


112 


THE  THREE  KINGDOMS  113 

who  secured  his  full  share  of  the  patrimony.  The  third 
state  was  founded  by  Liu  Pi,  a  scion  of  the  imperial 
house  whose  capital  was  at  Chingtu-fu  in  Szechuen. 
The  historian  is  here  confronted  by  a  problem  like  that 
of  settling  the  apostolic  succession  of  the  three  popes, 
and  he  has  decided  in  favour  of  the  last,  whom  he 
designates  the  "Later  Han,"  mainly  on  the  ground  of 
blood  relationship. 

Authority  for  this  is  found  in  the  dynastic  history; 
but  reference  may  also  be  made  to  a  romance  which 
deals  with  the  wars  of  those  three  states.  Composed 
by  Lo  Kwan-chung  and  annotated  by  Kin  Sheng  Tan, 
it  is  the  most  popular  historical  novel  in  the  whole 
range  of  Chinese  literature.  Taking  the  place  of  a 
national  epic,  its  heroes  are  not  of  one  type  or  all  on 
one  side,  but  its  favourites  are  found  among  the  ad- 
herents of  Liu  Pi.  It  opens  with  a  scene  in  which 
Liu,  Kwan,  and  Chang,  like  the  three  Tells  on  Gnitli, 
meet  in  a  peach-garden  and  take  vows  of  brotherhood — 
drinking  of  a  loving-cup  tinged  with  the  blood  of  each 
and  swearing  fidelity  to  their  common  cause.  Of  the 
three  brothers  the  first,  Liu  Pi,  after  a  long  struggle, 
succeeds  in  founding  a  state  in  western  China.  The 
second,  Kwan  Yu,  is  the  beau-ideal  of  patriotic  courage. 
In  1594  he  was  canonised  as  the  god  of  war.  The 
gifted  author  has,  therefore,  the  distinction,  beyond 
that  of  any  epic  poet  of  the  West,  of  having  created 
for  his  countrymen  their  most  popular  deity.  Chang-fi, 
the  youngest  of  the  three  brothers,  is  the  inseparable 
henchman  of  the  Chinese  Mars.  He  wields  a  spear 
eighteen  feet  in  length  with  a  dash  and  impetuosity 
which  no  enemy  is  able  to  withstand. 


114  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

Other  characters  are  equally  fixed  in  the  public 
mind.  Tsao  Tsao,  the  chief  antagonist  of  Liu  Pi, 
is  not  merely  a  usurper:  he  is  a  curious  compound  of 
genius,  fraud,  and  cruelty.  Another  conspicuous  actor 
is  Lii  Pu,  an  archer  able  to  split  a  reed  at  a  hundred 
paces,  and  a  horseman  who  performs  prodigies  on  the 
field  of  battle.  He  begins  his  career  by  shooting  his 
adopted  father,  like  Brutus  perhaps,  not  because  he 
loved  Tung  Choh  less,  but  China  more. 

All  these  and  others  too  numerous  to  mention  may 
be  seen  any  day  on  the  boards  of  the  theatre,  an  in- 
stitution which,  in  China  at  least,  serves  as  a  school 
for  the  illiterate.* 

Liu  Pi  succeeds,  after  a  struggle  of  twenty  years, 
in  establishing  himself  in  the  province  of  Szechuen; 
but  he  enjoys  undisturbed  dominion  in  his  limited 
realm  for  three  years  only,  and  then  transmits  his 
crown  to  a  youthful  son  whom  he  commends  to  the 
care  of  a  faithful  minister.  The  youth  when  an  infant 
has  been  rescued  from  a  burning  palace  by  the  brave 
Chang-fi,  who,  wrapping  the  sleeping  child  in  his 
cloak  and  mounting  a  fleet  charger,  cut  his  way  through 
the  enemy.  On  reaching  a  distant  point  the  child 
was  still  asleep.  The  witty  annotator  adds  the  re- 
mark, "He  continued  to  sleep  for  thirty  years." 

The  minister  to  whom  the  boy  had  been  confided, 
Chu-koh  Liang,  is  the  most  versatile  and  inventive 
genius  of  Chinese  antiquity.  As  the  founder  of  the 
house  of    Chou  discovered    in    an  old  fisherman    a 


*  The  stage  is  usually  a  platform  on  the  open  street  where  an  actor  may 
be  seen  changing  his  r61e  with  his  costume,  now  wearing  the  mask  of 
one  and  then  of  another  of  the  contending  chieftains,  and  changing  his 
voice,  always  in  a  falsetto  key,  to  produce  something  like  variety. 


THE  THREE  KINGDOMS  115 

counsellor  of  state  who  paved  his  way  to  the  throne, 
so  Liu  Pi  found  this  man  in  a  humble  cottage  where  he 
was  hiding  himself  in  the  garb  of  a  peasant,  San  Ku 
Mao  Lu,  say  the  Chinese.  He  "three  times  visited 
that  thatched  hovel"  before  he  succeeded  in  persuading 
its  occupant  to  commit  himself  to  his  uncertain  for- 
tunes. From  that  moment  Chu-koh  Liang  served 
him  as  eyes  and  ears,  teeth  and  claws,  with  a  skill 
and  fidelity  which  have  won  the  applause  of  all  suc- 
ceeding ages.  Among  other  things,  he  did  for  Liu  Pi 
what  Archimedes  did  for  Dionysius.  He  constructed 
military  engines  that  appeared  so  wonderful  that,  as 
tradition  has  it  "he  made  horses  and  oxen  out  of 
wood." 

Entrusted  by  his  dying  master  with  the  education 
of  the  young  prince,  he  has  left  two  papers  full  of  wise 
counsels  which  afford  no  little  help  in  drawing  the 
line  between  fact  and  fiction.  Unquestionably  Chu- 
koh  Liang  was  the  first  man  of  his  age  in  intellect 
and  in  such  arts  and  sciences  as  were  known  to  his 
times.  Yet  no  one  invention  can  be  pointed  to  as 
having  been  certainly  derived  from  Chu-koh  Liang. 
The  author  of  the  above-mentioned  romance,  who 
lived  as  late  as  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century,  con- 
stantly speaks  of  his  use  of  gunpowder  either  to  terrify 
the  enemy  or  to  serve  for  signals;  but  it  is  never  used 
to  throw  a  cannon-ball.  It  probably  was  known  to 
the  Chinese  of  that  date,  as  the  Arab  speaks  of  gun- 
powder under  the  designation  of  "Chinese  snow," 
meaning  doubtless  the  saltpetre  which  forms  a  leading 
ingredient.  The  Chinese  had  been  dabbling  in  alchemy 
for  many  centuries,  and  it  is  scarcely  possible  that  they 


ii6  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

should  have  failed  to  hit  on  some  such  explosive.  It 
is,  however,  believed  on  good  authority  that  they 
never  made  use  of  cannon  in  war  until  the  beginning 
of  the  fifteenth  century. 

There  are,  however,  three  other  inventions  or  im- 
provements of  the  known  arts,  which  deserve  notice 
in  this  connection,  namely,  the  "three Ps" — pen,  paper 
and  printing — all  preeminently  instruments  of  peace- 
ful culture.  The  pen  in  China  is  a  hair  pencil  resem- 
bling a  paint-brush.  It  was  invented  by  Mung-tien 
in  the  third  century  b.  c.  Paper  was  invented  by 
Tsai  Lun,  loo  b.  c,  and  printing  by  Fungtao  in  the 
tenth  century  of  the  present  era.  What  is  meant  by 
printing  in  this  case  is,  however,  merely  the  substitu- 
tion of  wood  for  stone,  the  Chinese  having  been  for 
ages  in  the  habit  of  taking  rubbings  from  stone  in- 
scriptions. It  was  not  long  before  they  divided  the 
slab  into  movable  characters  and  earned  for  them- 
selves the  honour  of  having  anticipated  Gutenberg 
and  Faust.  Their  divisible  types  were  never  in  general 
use,  however,  and  block  printing  continues  in  vogue; 
but  Western  methods  are  rapidly  supplanting  both. 

The  three  states  were  reunited  under  the  Tsin 
dynasty,  265  a.  d.  This  lasted  for  a  century  and  a 
half  and  then,  after  a  succession  of  fifteen  emperors, 
went  down  in  a  sea  of  anarchy,  from  the  froth  of  which 
arose  more  than  half  a  score  of  contending  factions, 
among  which  four  were  sufficiently  prominent  to  make 
for  themselves  a  place  in  history.  Their  period  is 
described  as  that  of  the  Nan-peh  Chao,  "Northern 
and  Southern  Kingdoms."  The  names  of  the  prin- 
cipals  were  Sung,  Wei,   Liang   and  Chin.     The   first 


THE  THREE  KINGDOMS  117 

only  was  Chinese,  the  others  belonging  to  various 
branches  of  the  Tartar  race.  The  chiefs  of  the  Liang 
family  were  of  Tibetan  origin — a  circumstance  which 
may  perhaps  account  for  their  predilection  for  Bud- 
dhism. The  second  emperor  of  that  house,  Wu  Ti, 
became  a  Buddhist  monk  and  retired  to  a  monastery 
where  he  lectured  on  the  philosophy  of  Buddhism. 
He  reminds  one  of  Charles  the  Fifth,  who  in  his  re- 
tirement amused  himself  less  rationally  by  repairing 
watches  and  striving,  in  vain,  to  make  a  number  of 
them  keep  identical  time. 

It  may  be  noted  that  behind  these  warring  factions 
there  is  in  progress  a  war  of  races  also.  The  Tartars 
are  forever  encroaching  on  the  Flowery  Land.  Re- 
pulsed or  expelled,  they  return  with  augmented  force; 
and  even  at  this  early  epoch  the  shadow  of  their  coming 
conquest  is  plainly  visible. 

In  the  confused  strife  of  North  and  South  the  pre- 
ponderance is  greatly  on  the  side  of  the  Tartars.  The 
pendulum  of  destiny  then  begins  to  swing  in  the  other 
direction.  Yan  Kien,  a  Chinese  general  in  the  service 
of  a  Tartar  principality,  took  advantage  of  their 
divisions  to  rally  a  strong  body  of  his  countrymen 
by  whose  aid  he  cut  them  off  in  detail  and  set  up  the 
Sui  dynasty,  The  Tartars  have  always  made  use  of 
Chinese  in  the  invasion  of  China;  and  if  the  Chinese 
were  always  faithful  to  their  own  country  no  invader 
would  succeed  in  conquering  them. 

Though  the  Sui  dynasty  lasted  less  than  thirty 
years  (589-618,  three  reigns),  it  makes  a  conspicuous 
figure  on  account  of  two  events:  (i)  a  victorious  ex- 
pedition in  the  north  which  reached  the  borders  of 


ii8  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

Turkestan,  and  (2)  the  opening  of  canals  between 
the  Yellow  River  and  the  Yang-tse  Kiang.  The  latter 
enterprise  only  hastened  the  fall  of  the  house.  It 
was  effected  by  forced  labour;  and  the  discontented 
people  were  made  to  believe,  as  their  historians  con- 
tinue to  assert,  that  its  chief  object  was  to  enable  a 
luxurious  emperor  to  display  his  grandeur  to  the  people 
of  many  provinces.  We  shall  see  how  the  extension 
of  those  canals  precipitated  the  overthrow  of  the 
Mongols  as  we  have  already  seen  how  the  completion 
of  the  Great  Wall  caused  the  downfall  of  the  house 
of  Ts'in. 

Yang-ti,  the  second  emperor  of  the  Sui  dynasty, 
though  not  wanting  in  energy,  is  notorious  for  his 
excesses  in  display  and  debauch.  He  is  reported  to 
have  hastened  his  accession  to  the  throne  by  the  mur- 
der of  his  father.  A  peaceful  end  to  such  a  reign 
would  have  been  out  of  keeping  with  the  course  of 
human  events.  Li  Yuen,  one  of  his  generals,  rose 
against  him,  and  he  was  assassinated  in  Nanking. 

By  wisdom  and  courage  Li  Yuen  succeeded  in  set- 
ting up  a  new  d3masty  which  he  called  T'ang  (618 
A.  D.) :  After  a  long  period  of  unrest,  it  brought  to  the 
distracted  provinces  an  era  of  unwonted  prosperity; 
it  held  the  field  for  nearly  three  hundred  years,  and 
surpassed  all  its  predecessors  in  splendour. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

THE  T'ANG  DYNASTY,  618-907  A.  D. 

(20  Emperors) 

An  Augustan  Age — A  Pair  of  Poets — The  Coming  of 
Christianity — The  Empress  Wu — System  of  Ex- 
aminations 

I  HAVE  seen  a  river  plunge  into  a  chasm  and 
disappear.  After  a  subterranean  course  of  many 
miles  it  rose  to  the  surface  fuUer,  stronger  than  before. 
No  man  saw  from  whence  it  drew  its  increment  of. 
force,  but  the  fact  was  undeniable.  This  is  just  what 
took  place  in  China  at  this  epoch. 

It  is  comforting  to  know  that  during  those  centuries 
of  turmoil  the  Chinese  were  not  wholly  engrossed  with 
war  and  rapine.  The  T'ang  dynasty  is  conspicuously 
the  Augustan  Age.  Literature  reappears  in  a  more 
perfect  form  than  under  the  preceding  reigns.  The 
prose  writers  of  that  period  are  to  the  present  day 
studied  as  models  of  composition,  which  cannot  be 
affirmed  of  the  writers  of  any  earlier  epoch.  Poetry, 
too,  shone  forth  with  dazzling  splendour.  A  galaxy 
of  poets  made  their  appearance,  among  whom  two 
particular  stars  were  Tufu  and  Lipai,  the  Dryden  and 
Pope  of  Chinese  literature. 

The  following  specimen  from  Lipai  who  is  deemed 
the  highest  poetical  genius  in  the  annals  of  China,  may 

119 


I20  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

show,   even   in  its  Western  dress,  something  of  his 
peciiliar  talent : 

ON  DRINKING  ALONE  BY  MOONLIGHT* 

Here  are  flowers  and  here  is  wine, 
But  Where's  a  friend  with  me  to  join 
Hand  in  hand  and  heart  to  heart 
In  one  ftill  cup  before  we  part? 

Rather  than  to  drink  alone, 
I'll  make  bold  to  ask  the  moon 
To  condescend  to  lend  her  face 
The  hour  and  the  scene  to  grace. 

Lo,  she  answers,  and  she  brings 
My  shadow  on  her  silver  wings;      • 
That  makes  three,  and  we  shall  be, 
I  ween,  a  merry  company 

The  modest  moon  declines  the  cup, 
But  shadow  promptly  takes  it  up, 
And  when  I  dance  my  shadow  fleet 
Keeps  measure  with  my  flying  feet. 

But  though  the  moon  declines  to  tipple 
She  dances  in  yon  shining  ripple, 
And  when  I  sing,  my  festive  song, 
The  echoes  of  the  moon  prolong. 

Say,  when  shall  we  next  meet  together? 
Surely  not  in  cloudy  weather, 
For  you  my  boon  companions  dear 
Come  only  when  the  sky  is  clear. 

The  second  emperor,  Tai-tsung,  made  good  his  claims 
by  killing  two  of  his  brothers  who  were  plotting  against 
him.      Notwithstanding    this    inauspicious    beginning 

♦From  "Chinese  Legends  and  Other  Poems,"  by  W.  A.  P.  Martin. 


THE  T'ANG  DYNASTY  121 

he  became  an  able  and  illustrious  sovereign.  The 
twenty- three  years  during  which  he  occupied  the  throne 
were  the  most  brilliant  of  that  famous  dynasty. 

At  Si-ngan  in  Shensi,  the  capital  of  the  T'angs,  is 
a  stone  monument  which  records  the  introduction  of 
Christianity  by  Nestorians  from  Syria.  Favoured 
by  the  Emperor  the  new  faith  made  considerable 
headway.  For  five  hundred  years  the  Nestorian 
churches  held  up  the  banner  of  the  Cross;  but  even- 
tually, through  ignorance  and  impurity,  they  sank 
to  the  level  of  heathenism  and  disappeared.  It  is 
sad  to  think  that  this  early  effort  to  evangelise  China 
has  left  nothing  but  a  monumental  stone. 

At  the  funeral  of  Tai-tsung  his  successor,  Kao-tsung, 
saw  Wu,  one  of  his  father's  concubines,  who  pleased 
him  so  much  that,  contrary  to  law,  he  took  her  into 
his  own  harem.  Raised  to  the  rank  of  empress  and 
left  mother  of  an  infant  son,  she  swayed  the  sceptre 
after  Kao-tsung's  death  for  twenty-one  years.  Be- 
ginning as  regent  she  made  herself  absolute. 

A  system  of  civil  service  examinations  which  had 
sprung  up  with  the  revival  of  learning  under  the  Hans 
was  now  brought  to  maturity.  For  good  or  for  evil 
it  has  dominated  the  mind  of  the  Empire  for  twelve 
centuries.  Now,  however,  the  leaders  of  thought 
have  begun  to  suspect  that  it  is  out  of  date.  The 
new  education  requires  new  tests;  but  what  is  to  hinder 
their  incorporation  in  the  old  system?  To  abolish 
it  would  be  fraught  with  danger,  and  to  modify  it  is 
a  delicate  task  for  the  government  of  the  present 
day. 

That  the  scholar  should  hold  himself  in  readiness 


122  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

to  serve  the  state  no  less  than  the  soldier  was  an 
acknowledged  principle.  It  was  reserved  for  the  states- 
men of  T'ang  to  make  it  the  mainspring  of  the  govern- 
ment. To  them  belongs  the  honour  of  constructing 
a  system  which  would  stimulate  literary  culture  and 
skim  the  cream  of  the  national  talent  for  the  use  of 
the  state.  It  had  the  further  merit  of  occupying  the 
minds  of  ambitious  youth  with  studies  of  absorbing 
interest,  thus  diverting  them  from  the  dangerous  path 
of  political  conspiracy. 

Never  was  a  more  effective  patronage  given  to  letters. 
Without  founding  or  endowing  schools  the  state  said: 
"  If  you  acquire  the  necessary  qualifications,  we  shall  see 
that  your  exertions  are  duly  rewarded.  Look  up  to 
those  shining  heights — see  the  gates  that  are  open  to 
welcome  you,  the  garlands  that  wait  to  crown  your 
triimiphant  course!" 

Annual  examinations  were  held  in  every  country; 
and  the  degree  of  S.  T.  (Siu-tsai),  equivalent  to  A.  B., 
was  conferred  on  3  per  cent,  of  the  candidates.  To 
fail  was  no  disgrace;  to  have  entered  the  lists  was  a 
title  to  respect.  Once  in  three  years  the  budding 
talent  of  the  province  convened  in  its  chief  city  to 
compete  for  the  second  degree.  This  was  H.  L.  {Hiao 
Lien,  "Filial  and  Honest"),  showing  how  ethical 
ideas  continued  to  dominate  the  literary  tribunals. 
It  is  now  Chu-jin,  and  denotes  nothing  but  promotion 
or  prize  man.  The  prize,  a  degree  answering  to  A.  M., 
poetically  described  as  a  sprig  of  the  Olea  fragrans, 
was  the  more  coveted  as  the  competitors  were  all 
honour  men  of  the  first  grade,  and  it  was  limited  to  one 
in   a  hundred.     Its   immediate  effect   is  such  social 


THE  T'ANG  DYNASTY  123 

distinction  that  it  is  said  poor  bachelors  are  common, 
but  poor  masters  are  rare. 

If  the  competition  stopped  here  it  would  be  an 
Olympic  game  on  a  grander  scale.  But  there  are 
loftier  heights  to  be  climbed.  The  new-made  masters 
from  all  the  provinces  proceed  to  the  imperial  capital 
to  try  their  strength  against  the  assembled  scholars 
of  the  Empire.  Here  the  prizes  are  three  in  a  hundred. 
The  successful  student  comes  forth  a  Literary  Doctor 
— a  Tsin-shi,  "fit  for  office."  To  all  such  is  assured 
a  footing,  high  or  low,  on  the  official  ladder. 

But  another  trial  remains  by  which  those  who  are 
good  at  the  high  leap  may  at  a  single  bound  place 
themselves  very  near  the  top.  This  final  contest 
takes  place  in  the  palace — nominally  in  the  presence 
of  the  Emperor,  and  the  questions  are  actually  issued 
by  him.  Its  object  is  to  select  the  brightest  of  the 
doctors  for  chairs  in  the  Hanlin  Academy — an  institu- 
tion in  which  the  humblest  seat  is  one  of  exalted  dignity. 
How  dazzling  the  first  name  on  that  list !  The  Chuang 
Yuen  or  senior  wrangler  takes  rank  with  governors 
and  viceroys.  An  unfading  halo  rests  on  the  place 
of  his  birth.  Sometimes  in  travelling  I  have  seen  a 
triumphal  arch  proclaiming  that  "  Here  was  bom  the 
laureate  of  the  Empire."  Such  an  advertisement 
raises  the  value  of  real  estate;  and  good  families  con- 
gregate in  a  place  on  which  the  sun  shines  so  auspi- 
ciously. A  laureate  who  lived  near  me  married  his 
daughter  to  a  viceroy,  and  her  daughter  became 
consort  to  the  Emperor  Tungchi. 

What  then  are  the  objections  to  a  regulation  which 
is  so  democratic  that  it  makes  a  nobleman  of  every 


124  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

successful  scholar  and  gives  to  all  the  inspiration  of 
equal  opportunity?  They  are,  in  a  word,  that  it  has 
failed  to  expand  with  the  growing  wants  of  the  people. 
The  old  curriculum  laid  down  by  Confucius,  "  Begin 
with  poetry;  make  etiquette  your  strong  point;  and 
finish  off  with  music,"  was  not  bad  for  his  day,  but  is 
utterly  inadequate  for  ours,  unless  it  be  for  a  young 
ladies'  seminary.  The  Sage's  chapter  on  experiment 
as  the  source  of  knowledge — a  chapter  which  might 
have  anticipated  the  Novum  Organum — having  been 
lost,  the  statesmen  of  the  T'ang  period  fell  into  the 
error  of  leaving  in  their  scheme  no  place  for  original 
research.  This  it  was  that  made  the  mind  of  China 
barren  of  discoveries  for  twelve  centuries.  It  was 
like  putting  a  hood  on  the  keen-eyed  hawk  and 
permitting  him  to  fly  at  only  such  game  as  pleased 
his  master. 

The  chief  requirement  was  superficial  polish  in 
prose  and  verse.  The  themes  were  taken  exclusively 
from  books,  the  newest  of  which  was  at  that  time  over 
a  thousand  years  old.  To  broach  a  theory  not  found 
there  was  fatal;  and  to  raise  a  question  in  physical 
science  was  preposterous.  Had  any  one  come  forward 
with  a  new  machine  he  might  have  been  rewarded; 
but  no  such  inventor  ever  came  because  the  best 
minds  in  the  Empire  were  trained  to  trot  blindfold 
on  a  tread-mill  in  which  there  was  no  possibility  of 
progress.  Had  the  mind  of  the  nation  been  left  free 
and  encouraged  to  exert  its  force,  who  can  doubt  that 
the  country  that  produced  the  mariner's  compass 
might  have  given  birth  to  a  Newton  or  an  Edison? 

After  Wu  none  of  the  monarchs  of  this  dynasty 


THE  T'ANG  DYNASTY  125 

calls  for  notice.  The  last  emperor  was  compelled  to 
abdicate;  and  thus,  after  a  career  of  nearly  three 
centuries  bright  with  the  light  of  genius  and  prolific 
of  usages  good  and  bad  that  set  the  fashion  for  after 
ages,  this  great  house  was  extinguished. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

THE  SUNG  DYNASTY,  960-1280  A.  D. 

(i8  Emperors) 

The  Five  Philosophers — Wang  Ngan-shi,  Economist — 
The  Kin  Tartars — The  Southern  Sungs — Aid  of 
Mongols  Invoked  to  Drive  Out  the  Kins — Mongols 
Exterminate  Sungs 

ON  THE  fall  of  the  house  of  T'ang,  a  score  of 
factions  contended  for  the  succession.  During 
the  fifty-three  years  preceding  the  establishment  of 
the  Sungs,  no  less  than  five  of  them  rose  to  temporary 
prominence  sufficient  to  admit  of  being  dubbed  a 
"dynasty."  Collectively  they  are  spoken  of  as  the 
"Five  Dynasties"  (907-960). 

Their  names  are  without  exception  a  repetition  of 
those  of  former  dynasties,  Liang,  T'ang,  Ts'in,  Han, 
Chou  with  the  prefix  "Later" — suggesting  that  each 
claimed  to  be  a  lineal  successor  of  some  previous  im- 
perial family.  Their  struggles  for  power,  not  more 
instructive  than  a  conflict  of  gladiators,  are  so  devoid 
of  interest  that  the  half-century  covered  by  them 
may  be  passed  over  as  a  blank.  It  may,  however,  be 
worth  while  to  remind  the  reader  that  as  the  House  of 
Han  was  followed  by  the  wars  of  the  "Three  King- 
doms," and  that  of  Ts'in  by  a  struggle  of  North  and 

South  under  four  states,  so  the  House  of  T'ang  was  now 

126 


THE  SUNG  DYNASTY  127 

succeeded  by  five  short-lived  "  dynasties,"  with  a  mean 
duration  of  scarcely  more  than  ten  years.  The  numeri- 
cal progression  is  curious;  but  it  is  more  important 
to  notice  a  historical  law  which  native  Chinese  writers 
deduce  from  those  scenes  of  confusion.  They  state 
it  in  this  form:  "After  long  union  the  empire  is  sure 
to  be  divided;  after  long  disruption  it  is  sure  to  be 
reunited." 

So  deep  an  impression  has  this  historical  generali- 
sation made  on  the  public  mind  that  if  the  empire 
were  now  to  be  divided  between  foreign  nations,  as 
it  has  been  more  than  once,  the  people  would  con- 
fidently expect  it  to  be  reintegrated  under  rulers  of 
their  own  race.  ^' 

The  undivided  Sung  dynasty  held  sway  from  960 
to  1 127;  that  of  the  southern  Sungs  from  11 27  to 
1280.  The  founder  of  the  house  was  Chao-kwang-yun, 
an  able  leader  of  soldiers  and  an  astute  politician. 
So  popular  was  he  with  his  troops  that  they  called 
him  to  the  throne  by  acclamation.  He  was  drunk, 
it  is  said,  when  his  new  dignity  was  announced,  and 
he  had  no  alternative  but  to  wear  the  yellow  robe  that 
was  thrown  on  his  shoulders.  Undignified  as  was  his 
debut,  his  reign  was  one  continued  triumph.  After 
a  tenure  of  seventeen  years,  he  left  his  successor  in 
possession  of  nearly  the  whole  of  China  Proper  together 
with  a  fatal  legacy  of  lands  on  the  north. 

The  two  main  features  of  the  Sung  period  are  the 
rise  of  a  great  school  of  philosophy  and  the  constant 
encroachment  of  the  Tartars.  The  two  Chengs  being 
brothers,  the  names  of  the  five  leading  philosophers 
fall  into  an  alliterative  line  of  four  syllables,   CheOy 


128  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

Cheng,  Chang,  Chu.  Acute  in  speculation  and  patient 
in  research,  they  succeeded  in  fixing  the  interpretation 
of  the  sacred  books,  and  in  estabHshing  a  theory  of 
nature  and  man  from  which  it  is  heresy  to  dissent. 
The  rise  of  their  school  marks  an  intellectual  advance 
as  compared  with  the  lettered  age  of  the  T'angs.  It 
was  an  age  of  daring  speculation;  but,  as  constantly 
happens  in  China,  the  authority  of  these  great  men 
was  converted  into  a  bondage  for  posterity.  The 
century  in  which  they  flourished  (1020-1120)  is  unique 
in  the  history  of  their  country  as  the  age  of  philosophy. 
In  Europe  it  was  a  part  of  the  Dark  Ages;  and  at 
that  time  the  Western  world  was  convulsed  by  the 
Crusades. 

The  most  eminent  of  the  five  philosophers  was  Chu 
Fu-tse.  Not  the  most  original,  he  collected  the  best 
thoughts  of  all  into  a  system;  and  his  erudition  was 
such  that  the  whole  range  of  literature  was  his  domain. 
Chu  Hi,  the  Coryphaeus  of  mediaeval  China,  stands 
next  in  honour  after  that  incomparable  pair,  Confucius 
and  Mencius.  Contemporary  with  the  earlier  members 
of  this  coterie  appeared  Wang  Ngan-shi,  an  economist 
of  rare  originality.  His  leading  principle  was  the 
absorption  by  the  state  of  all  industrial  enterprises 
— state  ownership  of  land,  and  in  general  a  paternal 
system  to  supersede  private  initiative.  So  charming 
was  the  picture  presented  in  his  book  "The  Secret  of 
Peace"  (still  extant)  that  the  Emperor  gave  him 
carte  blanche  to  put  his  theory  into  practice.  In  prac- 
tical life  however  it  was  a  failure — ^perhaps  because 
he  failed  to  allow  for  the  strength  or  weakness  of 
materials   and   instruments.     His  book  is  a    Chinese 


THE  SUNG  DYNASTY  129 

Utopia,  nearly  akin  to  those  of  Plato  and  Sir  John 
More. 

In  the  northeast  beyond  the  Wall  were  two  Tartar 
kingdoms,  one  of  which  was  the  Kin  or  "Golden 
Horde" — ^remote  ancestors  of  the  Manchu  dynasty. 
A  constant  menace  to  the  settled  population  of  the 
"inner  land,"  they  obtained  possession  of  Peking  in 
1 1 18.  For  a  time  they  were  kept  at  bay  by  a  money 
payment  which  reminds  one  of  the  Danegeld  paid  by 
our  forefathers  to  the  sea-robbers  of  northern  Europe. 
Payments  not  being  punctual,  the  Tartars  occupied 
portions  of  the  northern  provinces,  and  pushed  their 
way  as  far  south  as  K'ai-fung-fu,  the  capital  of  the 
Empire.  The  Emperor  retired  to  Nanking,  leaving 
in  command  his  son,  who,  unable  to  resist  the  Tartars, 
made  a  disgraceful  peace.  A  heavy  ransom  was  paid 
to  avert  the  sacking  of  the  city;  and  all  the  region  on 
the  north  of  the  Yellow  River  passed  under  Tartar 
sway. 

Repenting  of  their  hard  bargain,  the  Chinese  pro- 
voked a  renewal  of  hostilities,  which  resulted  in  a 
heavier  downfall.  The  capital  surrendered  after  a 
severe  siege,  and  the  Emperor  with  his  court  was  car- 
ried into  captivity.  The  next  emperor  acknowleged 
himself  a  vassal  of  the  Tartars;  but  peace  on  such 
conditions  could  not  be  of  long  duration.  An  inter- 
mittent warfare  was  kept  up  for  more  than  a  century, 
in  the  course  of  which  Nanking  was  pillaged,  and  the 
court  fell  back  successively  on  Hangchow  and  Wenchow. 
When  there  was  no  longer  a  place  of  safety  on  the 
mainland  the  wretched  fugitives  sought  refuge  on  an 
island.     Fitting  out  a  fleet  the  Tartars  continued  the 


I30  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

pursuit;  but  more  used  to  horses  than  ships,  the  fleet 
was  annihilated,  and  the  expiring  dynasty  obtained 
a  new  lease  of  life. 

This  was  about  1228.  The  Mongols  under  Genghis 
Khan  and  his  successors  had  carried  everything  before 
them  in  the  northwest.  Thirsting  for  revenge,  the 
Chinese  appealed  for  aid  to  this  new  power — and  the 
Mongols  found  an  opportunity  to  bag  two  birds  instead 
of  one.  As  a  Chinese  fable  puts  it:  "A  sea-bird 
failing  to  make  a  breakfast  on  a  shellfish  was  held  in 
its  grip  until  a  fisherman  captured  both." 

The  Kins  were  driven  back  into  Manchuria;  and 
the  Chinese  without  asking  leave  of  their  allies  re- 
occupied  their  old  capital.  But  the  revival  of  the 
Sungs  was  no  part  of  the  Mongol  programme.  The 
Sungs  declining  to  evacuate  K'ai-fung-fu  and  to  cede 
to  the  Mongols  the  northern  half  of  the  empire,  the 
latter  resolved  on  a  war  of  extermination.  After 
a  bitter  struggle  of  fifteen  years,  the  infant  emperor 
and  his  guardians  again  committed  their  fortunes  to 
the  sea.  The  Mongols,  more  lucky  than  the  other 
Tartars,  were  victorious  on  water  as  well  as  on  land; 
and  the  last  scion  of  the  imperial  house  drowned  him- 
self to  escape  their  fury  (1280). 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

THE  YUEN  OR  MONGOL  DYNASTY,    1280-1368 

(lo  Emperors) 

Kublai  Khan — First  Intercourse  of  China  with  Europe 
— Marco  Polo — The  Grand  Canal 

PARTS  of  China  had  been  frequently  overrun  by- 
foreign  conquerors;  but  the  Mongols  were  the 
first  to  extend  their  sway  over  the  whole  country. 
The  subjugation  of  China  was  the  work  of  Kublai, 
grandson  of  Genghis,  who  came  to  the  throne  in  1260, 
inheriting  an  empire  more  extensive  than  Alexander 
or  Caesar  had  dreamed  of.  In  1264  the  new  khahi 
fixed  his  court  at  Peking  and  proceeded  to  reduce  the 
provinces  to  subjection.  Exhausted  and  disunited 
as  they  were  the  task  was  not  difficult,  though  it  took 
fifteen  years  to  complete.  Ambition  alone  would  have 
been  sufficient  motive  for  the  conquest,  but  his  hostility 
was  provoked  by  perfidy — especially  by  the  murder 
of  envoys  sent  to  announce  his  accession.  "Without 
good  faith,"  says  Confucius,  "no  nation  can  exist." 

By  the  absorption  of  China  the  dominions  of  Kublai 
were  made  richer,  if  not  greater  in  extent,  than  those 
of  his  grandfather,  while  the  splendour  of  his  court 
quite  eclipsed  that  of  Genghis  Khan. 

Unknown  to  the  ancient  Romans,  China  was  re- 
vealed to  their  mediseval  successors  by  the  Mongol 

131 


132  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

conquest.  In  1261  two  Venetian  merchants,  Nicolo 
and  Matteo  Polo,  made  their  way  to  Bokhara,  whence, 
joining  an  embassy  from  India,  they  proceeded  to 
Kublai's  capital  at  Xanadu  (or  Shangtu)  near  the 
site  of  Peking.  They  were  the  first  white  men  the 
Grand  Khan  had  ever  seen,  and  he  seems  to  have 
perceived  at  once  that,  if  not  of  superior  race,  they  were 
at  least  more  advanced  in  civilisation  than  his  own 
people;  for,  besides  intrusting  them  with  letters  to 
the  Pope,  he  gave  them  a  commission  to  bring  out  a 
hundred  Europeans  to  instruct  the  Mongols  in  the 
arts  and  sciences  of  the  West. 

In  1275  they  returned  to  Peking  without  other 
Europeans,  but  accompanied  by  Marco  Polo,  the  son 
of  Nicolo.  They  were  received  with  more  honour 
than  on  their  first  visit,  and  the  young  man  was  ap- 
pointed to  several  positions  of  trust  in  the  service  of 
the  monarch.  After  a  sojourn  of  seventeen  years, 
the  three  Polos  obtained  permission  to  join  the  escort 
of  a  Mongol  princess  who  was  going  to  the  court  of 
Persia.  In  Persia  they  heard  of  the  death  of  their 
illustrious  patron,  and,  instead  of  returning  to  China, 
turned  their  faces  homeward,  arriving  at  Venice  in 
1295. 

Having  been  captured  by  the  Genoese,  Marco  Polo 
while  in  prison  dictated  his  wonderful  story.  At 
first  it  was  looked  on  as  a  romance  and  caused  its 
author  to  receive  the  sobriquet  of  "Messer  Millione"; 
but  its  general  accuracy  has  been  fully  vindicated. 

The  chief  effect  of  that  narrative  was  to  fire  the 
imagination  of  another  Italian  and  lead  him  by  steer- 
ing to  the  west  to  seek  a  short  cut  to  the  Eldorado. 


THE  YUEN  OR  MONGOL  DYNASTY   133 

How  strange  the  occult  connection  of  sublunary  things! 
The  Mongol  Kublai  must  be  invoked  to  account  for 
the  discovery  of  America!  The  same  story  kindled  the 
fancy  of  Coleridge,  in  the  following  exquisite  fragment, 
which  he  says  came  to  him  in  a  vision  of  the  night: 

"In  Xanadu  did  Kubla  Khan 

A  stately  pleasure-dome  decree: 

Where  Alph,  the  sacred  river,  ran 

Through  caverns  measureless  to  man, 

Down  to  a  sunless  sea." 

—  Kubla  Khan. 

Still  another  Italian  claims  mention  as  having 
made  some  impression  on  the  cotirt  of  Kublai.  This 
was  Corvino,  a  missionary  sent  by  the  Pope;  but  of 
his  church,  his  schools,  and  his  convents,  there  were 
left  no  more  traces  than  of  his  predecessors,  the  Nes- 
torians. 

The  glor\^  of  Kublai  was  not  of  long  duration. 
The  hardy  tribes  of  the  north  became  enervated  by 
the  luxury  and  ease  of  their  rich  patrimony.  "Capua 
captured  Hannibal. ' '  Nine  of  the  founder's  descendants 
followed  him,  not  one  of  whom  displayed  either  vigour 
or  statesmanship. 

Their  power  ebbed  more  suddenly  than  it  rose. 
Shun-ti,  the  last  of  the  house,  took  refuge  behind  the 
Great  Wall  from  the  rising  tide  of  Chinese  patriotism; 
and  after  a  tenure  of  ninety  years,  or  of  two  centuries 
of  fluctuating  dominion,  reckoning  from  the  rise  of 
Genghis  Khan,  the  Yuen  dynasty  came  to  an  un- 
timely end. 

The  magnificent  waterway,  the  Grand  Canal,  re- 
mains   an    imperishable    monument    of    the    Mongol 


134  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

sway.  As  an  "alimentary  canal"  it  was  needed 
for  the  support  of  the  armies  that  held  the  people  in 
subjection;  and  the  Mongols  only  completed  a  work 
which  other  dynasties  had  undertaken.  A  descrip- 
tion of  it  from  personal  observation  is  given  in  Part  I 
of  this  work  (page  31).  It  remains  to  be  said  that 
the  construction  of  the  Canal,  like  that  of  the  Great 
Wall,  was  a  leading  cause  of  the  downfall  of  its  builders. 
Forced  labour  and  aggravated  taxation  gave  birth 
to  discontent;  rebellion  became  rife,  and  the  Mongols 
were  too  effeminate  to  take  active  measures  for  its 
suppression. 


^ 


'^^AR'P* 


OF   THE 


UNWERSITV 


iFOg! 


H^^- 


MIXO   TOMBS 
Grand  hall  of  Yungloh,  who  removed  the  capital  from  Nanking  to  Peking 


WATCH-TOWER  AT  YUNGLOH'S  TOMB 


CHAPTER  XXV 

THE  MING  DYNASTY,  1368—1644  A.  D. 

(i6  Emperors) 

Humble  Origin  of  the  Founder — Nanking  and  Peking 
as  Capital — First  Arrival  of  European  Ships — 
Portuguese,  Spaniards,  and  Dutch  Traders — Ar- 
rival of  Missionaries — Tragic  End  of  the  Last  of 
the  Mings 

HUMBLE  as  was  the  origin  of  the  founder  of  the 
House  of  Han,  spoken  of  as  Pu-i,  "A  peasant 
clothed  in  homespun,"  that  of  the  Father  of  the 
Mings  was  still  more  obscure.  A  novice  or  servant 
{sacrificulus)  in  a  Buddhist  monastery,  Chu  Yuen 
Chang  felt  called  to  deliver  his  people  from  oppression. 
At  first  regarded  as  a  robber  chief,  one  of  many,  his 
rivals  submitted  to  his  leadership  and  the  people  ac- 
cepted his  protection.  Securing  possession  of  Nan- 
king, a  city  of  illustrious  memories  and  strong  natural 
defences,  he  boldly  proclaimed  his  purpose.  After 
twenty  years  of  blood  and  strategy,  he  succeeded 
in  placing  the  Great  Wall  between  him  and  the  re- 
treating Mongols.  Proud  of  his  victory  he  assumed 
for  the  title  of  his  reign  Hungwu,  "Great  Warrior," 
and  chose  Ming,  "Luminous,"  for  that  of  his  dynasty. 
Leaving  his  son,  the  Prince  of  Yen,  at  Peking,  to 
hold  the  Tartars  in  check,  Hungwu  spent  the  remaining 

135 


136  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

years  of  his  reign  at  his  original  capital,  and  then  left 
the  sceptre  to  his  grandson.  The  Prince  of  Yen,  uncle 
of  the  youthful  emperor,  feeling  the  slight  implied 
in  his  father's  choice,  raised  an  army  and  captured 
Nanking.  A  charred  corpse  being  shown  to  him 
as  that  of  the  emperor,  he  caused  it  to  be  interred 
with  becoming  rites,  and  at  once  assumed  the  imperial 
dignity,  choosing  for  his  reigning  title  Yungloh,  "Per- 
petual Joy."  He  also  removed  the  seat  of  government 
to  Peking,  where  it  has  remained  for  five  centuries. 
The  "Thesaurus  of  Yungloh,"  a  digest  of  Chinese 
literature  so  extensive  as  to  form  a  library  in  itself, 
remains  a  monument  to  his  patronage  of  letters. 

A  tragic  episode  in  the  history  of  the  Mings  was  the 
capture  of  the  next  emperor  by  the  Mongols,  who, 
however,  failed  to  take  Peking.  It  was  easier  to 
make  a  new  emperor  than  to  ransom  the  captive. 
His  brother  having  been  proclaimed,  the  Tartars 
sent  their  captive  back,  hoping  that  a  war  between 
the  brothers  would  weaken  their  enemy.  Retiring 
into  private  life  he  appeared  to  renounce  his  claim; 
but  after  the  death  of  his  brother  he  once  more  oc- 
cupied the  throne.     What  a  theme  for  a  romance! 

Great  Britain  was  described  by  a  Roman  as  ' '  almost 
cut  off  from  the  whole  world"  because  it  was  not 
accessible  by  land.  China  had  long  been  cut  off  from 
the  Western  world  because  it  was  not  accessible  by 
sea.  The  way  to  India  was  opened  by  Diaz  and 
Gama  in  1498;  and  the  first  Portuguese  ships  ap- 
peared at  Canton  in  1511.  Well- treated  at  first, 
others  came  in  greater  numbers.  Their  armaments 
were  so  formidable  as  to  excite  suspicion;  and  their 


THE  MING  DYNASTY  137 

acts  of  violence  kindled  resentment.  Under  these 
combined  motives  a  massacre  of  the  foreign  traders 
was  perpetrated,  and  Andrade,  a  sort  of  envoy  at 
Peking,  was  thrown  into  prison  and  beheaded.  The 
trading-posts  were  abolished  except  at  Macao,  where 
the  Portuguese  obtained  a  footing  by  paying  an 
annual  rent. 

After  the  Portuguese  came  the  Spaniards,  who 
appear  to  have  been  satisfied  with  the  Philippine 
archipelago,  rather  than  provoke  a  conflict  with  the 
Portuguese.  The  Chinese  they  had  little  reason  to 
dread,  as  the  superiority  of  their  arms  would  have 
enabled  them  to  seize  portions  of  the  seacoast,  though 
not  to  conquer  the  Empire  as  easily  as  they  did  the 
Mexicans  and  Peruvians.  Perhaps,  too,  the}''  were 
debarred  by  the  same  authority  which  divided  the 
Western  continent  between  the  two  Iberian  powers. 
The  Chinese  becoming  too  numerous  at  Manila,  the 
Spaniards  slaughtered  them  without  mercy,  as  if  in 
retaliation  for  the  blood  of  their  cousins,  or  taking 
a  hint  from  the  policy  of  China. 

In  1622  the  Dutch  endeavoured  to  open  trade  with 
China,  but  their  advances  being  rejected,  doubtless 
through  secret  opposition  from  the  Portuguese,  they 
seized  the  Pescadores,  and  later  established  themselves 
on  Formosa,  whence  they  were  eventually  expelled 
by  Koxinga,  a  Chinese  freebooter. 

The  church  founded  by  Corvino  at  Peking  perished 
in  the  overthrow  of  the  Mongols.  The  Portuguese 
traders  disapproved  of  missions,  as  tending  to  impose 
restraint  on  their  profligacy  and  to  impart  to  China 
the  strength  that  comes  from  knowledge.     The  narrow 


138  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

policy  of  the  Mings,  moreover,  closed  the  door  against 
the  introduction  of  a  foreign  creed.  Yet  it  is  strange 
that  half  a  century  elapsed  before  any  serious  attempt 
was  made  to  give  the  Gospel  to  China.  In  1552  St. 
Francis  Xavier,  the  apostle  of  the  Indies,  arrived  at 
Macao.  He  and  his  fellow  Jesuits  were  indirect  fruits 
of  the  Protestant  Reformation — ^belonging  to  an  order 
organised  for  the  purpose  of  upholding  and  extending 
the  power  of  the  Holy  See.  After  wonderful  success 
in  India,  the  Straits,  and  Japan,  Xavier  appeared  in 
Chinese  waters,  but  he  was  not  allowed  to  land.  He 
expired  on  the  island  of  Shang-chuen  or  St.  John's, 
exclaiming  "O  rock,   rock,   when  wilt  thou  open?" 

Ricci,  who  came  in  1580,  met  with  better  success: 
but  it  cost  him  twenty  years  of  unceasing  effort  to 
effect  an  entrance  to  Peking.  Careful  to  avoid  giving 
offence,  and  courtly  in  manners,  his  science  proved 
to  be  the  master-key.  Among  the  eminent  men  who 
favoured  his  mission  was  Sii  of  Shanghai,  whom  he 
baptised  by  the  name  of  Paul.  Not  only  did  he 
help  Ricci  to  translate  Euclid  for  a  people  ignorant 
of  the  first  elements  of  geometry,  but  he  boldly  came 
to  the  defence  of  missionaries  when  it  was  proposed 
to  expel  them.  His  memorial  in  their  favour  is  one 
of  the  best  documents  in  the  defence  of  Christianity. 
Among  the  converts  to  the  Christian  faith  there  are 
no  brighter  names  than  Paul  Su  and  his  daughter 
Candida. 

The  Ming  dynasty  compares  favourably  in  point 
of  duration  with  most  of  the  imperial  houses  that 
preceded  it;  but  long  before  the  middle  of  its  third 
century  it  began  to  show  signs  of  decay.     In  Korea 


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OF  THE  "- 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


THE  MING  DYNASTY  139 

it  came  into  collision  with  the  Japanese,  and  emerged 
with  more  credit  than  did  its  successor  from  a  war 
with  the  same  foe,  which  began  on  the  same  ground 
three  centuries  later.  In  the  northeast  the  Mings 
were  able  to  hold  the  Manchus  at  bay,  notwithstanding 
an  occasional  foray;  but  a  disease  of  the  heart  was 
sapping  the  vigour  of  the  dynasty  and  hastening  its 
doom.  Rebellion  became  rife;  and  two  of  the  as- 
pirants to  the  throne  made  themselves  masters  of 
whole  provinces.  One  depopulated  Szechuen;  the  other 
ravaged  Shansi  and  advanced  on  Peking.  Chungchen, 
the  last  of  the  Mings,  realising  that  all  was  lost,  hanged 
himself  in  his  garden  on  the  Palatine  Hill,  after 
stabbing  his  daughter,  as  a  last  proof  of  paternal 
affection  (1643). 


CHAPTER  XXVI 

THE  TA-TS'ING  DYNASTY,  1644— 

The  Manchus,  Invited  to  Aid  in  Restoring  Order,  Seat 
their  Own  Princes  on  the  Throne— the  Traitor,  General 
Wu  San-kwei — Reigns  of  Shunchi  and  Kanghi — 
Spread  of  Christianity — A  Papal  Blunder — Yung- 
cheng  Stccceeded  by  Kienlung,  who  Abdicates  Rather 
than  Reign  Longer  than  his  Grandfather — Era  of 
Transformation 

THE  Manchus  had  been  preparing  for  some  genera- 
tions for  a  descent  on  China.  They  had  never 
forgotten  that  half  the  Empire  had  once  been  in  the 
possession  of  their  forefathers,  the  Kin  Tartars;  and 
after  one  or  two  abortive  attempts  to  recover  their 
heritage  they  settled  themselves  at  Mukden  and 
watched  their  opportunity.  It  came  with  the  fall 
of  the  Mings. 

Wu  San-kwei,  a  Chinese  general  whose  duty  it  was 
to  keep  them  in  bounds,  threw  open  the  gate  of  the 
Great  Wall  and  invoked  their  assistance  to  expel  the 
successful  rebel.  His  family  had  been  slaughtered 
in  the  fall  of  the  capital;  he  thirsted  for  revenge,  and 
without  doubt  indulged  the  hope  of  founding  a  dynasty. 
The  Manchus  agreed  to  his  terms,  and,  combining 
their  forces  with  his.  advanced  on  Peking.     Feeling 

himself  unable  to  hold  the  city,  the  rebel  chief  burnt 

140 


THE  TA-TS'ING  DYNASTY  141 

his  palace  and  retreated,  after  enjoying  the  imperial 
dignity  ten  days. 

General  Wu  offered  to  pay  off  his  mercenaries  and 
asked  them  to  retire  beyond  the  Wall.  Smiling  at 
his  simplicity,  they  coolly  replied  that  it  was  for  him 
to  retire  or  to  enter  their  service.  It  was  the  old 
story  of  the  ass  and  the  stag.  An  ass  easily  drove  a 
stag  from  his  pasture-ground  by  taking  a  man  on  his 
back;  but  the  man  remained  in  the  saddle.  Forced 
to  submit,  the  General  employed  his  forces  to  bring 
his  people  into  subjection  to  their  hereditary  enemy. 
Rewarded  with  princely  rank,  and  shielded  by  the 
reigning  house,  he  has  escaped  the  infamy  which  he 
deserved  at  the  hands  of  the  historians.  A  traitor 
to  his  country,  he  was  also  a  traitor  to  his  new  masters. 
He  died  in  a  vain  attempt  at  counter-revolution. 

The  new  dynasty  began  with  Shunchi,  a  child  of 
six  years,  his  uncle  the  Prince  Hwai  acting  as  regent. 
Able  and  devoted,  this  great  man,  whom  the  Manchus 
call  Amawang,  acquitted  himself  of  his  task  in  a  man- 
ner worthy  of  the  model  regent,  the  Duke  of  Chou. 
His  task  was  not  an  easy  one.  He  had  to  suppress 
contending  factions,  to  conciliate  a  hostile  populace, 
and  to  capture  many  cities  which  refused  to  submit. 
In  seven  years  he  effected  the  subjugation  of  the 
eighteen  provinces,  everywhere  imposing  the  tonsure 
and  the  "pigtail"  as  badges  of  subjection.  Many  a 
myriad  of  the  Chinese  forfeited  their  heads  by  refusing 
to  sacrifice  their  glossy  locks;  but  the  conquest  was 
speedy,  and  possession  secure. 

The  success  of  the  Manchus  was  largely  due  to  the 
fact  that  they  found  the  empire  exhausted  by  internal 


142  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

strife  and  came  as  deliverers.  The  odium  of  over- 
turning the  Ming  dynasty  did  not  rest  on  them.  While 
at  Mukden  they  had  ciiltivated  the  language  and 
letters  of  the  "  Inner  land  "  and  they  had  before  them, 
for  guidance  or  warning,  the  history  of  former  conquests. 

They  have  improved  on  their  predecessors,  whether 
Kins  or  Mongols;  and  with  all  their  faults  they  have 
given  to  China  a  better  government  than  any  of  her 
native  dynasties. 

Shunchi  (i 644-1 662)  passed  off  the  stage  at  the  age 
of  twenty-four  and  left  the  throne  to  a  son,  Kanghi 
(1662-1723),  who  became  the  greatest  monarch  in 
the  history  of  the  Empire.  During  his  long  reign 
of  sixty-one  years,  Kanghi  maintained  order  in  his 
wide  domain,  corrected  abuses  in  administration,  and 
promoted  education  for  both  nationalities.  It  is  notable 
that  the  most  complete  dictionary  of  the  Chinese 
language  bears  the  imprimatur  of  Kanghi,  a  Tartar 
sovereign. 

For  his  fame  in  the  foreign  world,  Kanghi  is  largely 
indebted  to  the  learned  missionaries  who  enjoyed  his 
patronage,  though  he  took  care  to  distinguish  be- 
tween them  and  their  religion.  The  latter  had  been 
proscribed  by  the  regents,  who  exercised  supreme 
power  during  his  minority.  Their  decree  was  never 
revoked;  and  persecution  went  on  in  the  provinces, 
without  the  least  interference  from  the  Emperor. 
Still  his  patronage  of  missionaries  was  not  without 
influence  on  the  status  of  Christianity  in  his  dominions. 
It  gained  ground,  and  before  the  close  of  his  reign  it 
had  a  following  of  over  three  hundred  thousand  con- 
verts.     Near  the  close  of  his  reign  he  pointedly  con- 


THE  TA-TS'ING  DYNASTY  143 

demned  the  foreign  faith,  and  commanded  the  expul- 
sion of  its  propagators,  except  a  few,  who  were  re- 
quired in  the  Board  of  Astronomy. 

The  favourable  impression  made  by  Ricci  had  been 
deepened  by  Schaal  and  Verbiest.  The  former  under 
Shunchi  reformed  the  calendar  and  obtained  the 
presidency  of  the  Astronomical  Board.  He  also  cast 
cannon  to  aid  the  Manchu  conquest.  The  latter  did 
both  for  Kanghi,  and  filled  the  same  high  post.  Schaal 
employed  his  influence  to  procure  the  building  of  two 
churches  in  Peking.  Verbiest  made  use  of  his  to 
spread  the  faith  in  the  provinces.  The  Church  might 
perhaps  have  gained  a  complete  victory,  had  not  dis- 
sensions arisen  within  her  own  ranks.  Dominicans 
and  Franciscans  entering  the  field  denounced  their 
forerunners  for  having  tolerated  heathen  rites  and 
accepted  heathen  names  for  God.  After  prolonged 
discussions  and  contradictory  decrees  the  final  verdict 
went  against  the  Jesuits.  In  this  decision  the  Holy 
See  seems  not  to  have  been  guided  by  infallible  wisdom. 

Kanghi,  whose  opinion  had  been  requested  by  the 
Jesuits,  asserted  that  by  Tien  and  Shang-ti  the  Chinese 
mean  the  Ruler  of  the  Universe,  and  that  the  worship 
of  Confucius  and  of  ancestors  is  not  idolatry,  but  a 
state  or  family  ceremony.  By  deciding  against  his 
views,  the  Pope  committed  the  blunder  of  alienating 
a  great  monarch,  who  might  have  been  won  by  a  liberal 
policy.  The  prohibition  of  the  cult  of  ancestors — 
less  objectionable  in  itself  than  the  worship  of  saints 
— ^had  the  effect  of  arming  every  household  against 
a  faith  that  aimed  to  subvert  their  family  altars. 
The  dethronement  of  Shang-ti  (a  name  accepted  by 


144  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

most  Protestant  missionaries)  and  the  substitution 
of  Tien  Chu,  could  not  fail  to  shock  the  best  feelings 
of  devout  people.  Tien  Chu,  if  not  a  new  coinage, 
was  given  by  papal  fiat  an  artificial  value,  equivalent 
to  "Lord  of  all" — whereas  it  had  previously  headed 
a  list  of  divisional  deities,  such  as  Lord  of  Heaven, 
Lord  of  Earth,  Lord  of  the  Sea,  etc. 

What  wonder  that  for  two  centuries  Christianity 
continued  to  be  a  prohibited  creed!  The  ground  thus 
lost  by  a  papal  blunder  it  has  never  regained.  The 
acceptance  of  Tien  and  Shang-ti  by  Protestants  might 
perhaps  do  something  to  retrieve  the  situation,  if 
backed  by  some  form  of  respect  for  ancestors. 

Kanghi  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Yungcheng 
(1722-1736),  who  was  followed  by  Kienlung  (1736- 
1796),  during  whose  reign  the  dynasty  reached  the 
acme  of  splendour.  Under  Kienlung,  Turkestan  was 
added  to  the  empire.  The  Grand  Lama  of  Tibet  was 
also  enrolled  as  a  feudatory;  but  he  never  accepted 
the  laws  of  China,  and  no  doubt  considered  himself 
repaid  by  spiritual  homage.  No  territory  has  since 
been  added,  and  none  lost,  if  we  except  the  cession  of 
Formosa  to  Japan  and  of  Hong  Kong  to  Great  Britain. 
The  cessions  of  seaports  to  other  powers  are  considered 
as  temporary  leases. 

After  a  magnificent  reign  of  sixty  years,  Kienlung 
abdicated  in  favour  of  his  fifth  son,  Kiak'ing,  for  the 
whimsical  reason  that  he  did  not  wish  to  reign  longer 
than  his  grandfather.  In  Chinese  eyes  this  was  sublime. 
Why  did  they  not  enact  a  law  that  no  man  should 
surpass  the  longevity  of  his  father? 
As  to  Kiak'ing,  who  occupied  the  throne  for  twenty- 


THE  TA-TS'ING  DYNASTY  145 

four  years,  weak  and  dissolute  is  a  summary  of  his 
character. 

The  next  four  reigns  came  under  the  influence 
of  new  forces.  They  belong  to  the  era  of  transform- 
ation,   and  may  properly  be  reserved  for  Part  III. 


PART  III 
CHINA  IN  TRANSFORMATION 


CHAPTER  XXVII 

THE  OPENING  OF  CHINA,  A  DRAMA  IN 
FIVE  ACTS—GOD  IN  HISTORY 

Prologue — Act  i,  the  Opium  War — (Note  on  the  Tai- 
ping  Rebellion) — Act  2,  the  ''Arrow''  War — Act  3, 
War  with  France — Act  4,  War  with  Japan — Act 
5,  the  Boxer  War 

PROLOGUE 

IF  ONE  were  asked  to  name  the  most  important 
three  events  that  took  place  in  Asia  in  the  last 
century,  he  could  have  no  hesitation  in  pointing  to  the 
extension  of  the  Indian  Empire  and  the  renovation 
of  Japan  as  two  of  them.  But  where  would  he  look 
for  the  third?  Possibly  to  some  upheaval  in  Turkey, 
Persia,  or  Asiatic  Russia.  In  my  opinion,  however, 
China  is  the  only  country  whose  history  supplies  the 
solution  of  the  problem.  The  opening  of  that  colossal 
empire  to  unrestricted  intercourse  with  other  countries 
was  not  a  gradual  evolution  from  within — it  was 
the  result  of  a  series  of  collisions  between  the  conser- 
vatism of  the  extreme  Orient  and  the  progressive 
spirit  of  the  Western  world. 

Each  of  those  collisions  culminated  in  a  war,  giving 
rise  to  a  cloud  of  ephemeral  literature,   in  which  a 

student  might  easily  lose  his  way,  and  which  it  would 

149 


N 


150  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

require  the  lifetime  of  an  antediluvian  to  exhaust. 
I  think,  therefore,  that  I  shall  do  my  readers  a  service 
if  I  set  before  them  a  concise  outline  of  each  of  those 
wars,  together  with  an  account  of  its  causes  and  con- 
sequences. Not  only  will  this  put  them  on  their 
guard  against  misleading  statements;  it  will  also 
furnish  them  with  a  syllabus  of  the  modern  history 
of  China  in  relation  to  her  intercourse  with  other 
nations. 

During  the  past  seven  decades  the  Chinese  Empire 
has  been  no  less  than  five  times  in  conflict  with  foreign 
powers;  and  on  each  occasion  her  policy  has  under- 
gone a  modification  more  or  less  extensive.  Taking 
these  five  conflicts  seriatim — without  touching  on 
those  internal  commotions  whose  rise  and  fall  resembles 
the  tides  of  the  ocean — I  shall  ask  my  readers  to  think 
of  the  Flowery  Land  as  a  stage  on  which,  within  the 
memory  of  men  now  living,  a  tragedy  in  five  acts  has 
been  performed.  Its  subject  was  the  Opening  of 
China;  and  its  first  act  was  the  so-called  Opium  War 
(1839-42).  Prior  to  1839  the  Central  Empire,  as  the 
Chinese  proudly  call  their  country,  with  a  population 
nearly  equal  to  that  of  Europe  and  America  combined, 
was  hermetically  sealed  against  foreign  intercourse, 
except  at  one  point,  viz.,  the  "Factories"  at  Canton. 

This  state  of  things  is  depicted  with  a  few  master- 
strokes in  a  popular  work  in  Chinese  entitled  * '  Strange 
Stories  of  an  Idle  Student."  The  first  of  these  tales 
describes  a  traveller  meeting  in  the  mountains  an  old 
man,  in  the  costume  of  a  former  dynasty,  whose 
family  had  there  sought  a  refuge  from  the  anarchy 
that  preceded  the  fall  of  the  imperial  house.     This 


THE  OPIUM  WAR  151 

old  fellow  had  not  even  heard  of  the  accession  of  the 
Manchu  conquerors;  and  though  he  was  eager  for 
information,  he  disappeared  without  giving  any  clue 
to  the  Sleepy  Hollow  in  which  he  was  hiding.  The 
author  no  doubt  intended  a  quiet  satire  on  the  se- 
clusion of  China,  that  had  nothing  to  ask  of  the  out- 
side world  but  to  be  let  alone. 

Another  of  the  sketches,  which  is  no  satire,  but  a 
cautionary  hint — perhaps  an  unconscious  prophecy — 
is  entitled  "The  Magic  Carpet  of  the  Red-haired," 
a  vulgar  designation  for  Europeans,  in  contrast  with 
the  Chinese,  who  style  themselves  the  "Black-haired 
race."  During  the  former  dynasty,  it  says,  a  ship 
arrived  from  some  unknown  country,  and  those  aboard 
desired  to  engage  in  commerce.  Their  request  was 
refused;  but  when  they  asked  permission  to  dry  their 
goods  on  shore,  requiring  for  that  purpose  no  more 
ground  than  they  could  cover  with  a  carpet,  their 
petition  was  readily  granted.  The  carpet  was  spread, 
and  the  goods  were  exposed  to  the  sun;  then,  taking 
the  carpet  by  its  four  corners,  they  stretched  it  so 
that  it  covered  several  acres.  A  large  body  of  armed 
men  then  planted  themselves  on  it,  and  striking  out 
in  every  direction  took  possession  of  the  country. 
This  elastic  carpet  reminds  one  of  Dido's  bull's  hide, 
which  covered  space  enough  for  the  foundation  of 
Carthage 

ACT   I.       THE    OPIUM    WAR,    1839-1842 

The  Tartars,  who  began  their  conquest  in  1644,  were 
naturally  suspicious  of  other  foreigners  who  had  secured 
a  foothold  in  India,  where  the  Great  Mogul,  a  scion 


152  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

of  their  own  race,  still  held  nominal  sway.  The  trad- 
ing-posts, which  the  Chinese  emperors  had  permitted 
foreigners  to  open  as  far  north  as  Ningpo,  were  closed, 
and  only  one  point  of  tangency  was  allowed  to  remain 
— the  above-mentioned  Factories  at  Canton,  a  spot, 
as  we  shall  see,  large  enough  to  admit  of  the  spreading 
of  a  "magic  carpet."  Foreign  trade  was  at  that  time 
insignificant,  in  comparison  with  the  enormous  ex- 
pansion which  it  has  now  attained.  It  was  mainly 
in  the  hands  of  the  British,  as  it  still  continues  to  be; 
and  no  small  part  of  it  consisted  in  opium  from  the 
poppy-fields  of  India.  Though  under  the  ban  of 
prohibition,  this  drug  was  smuggled  into  every  bay 
and  inlet,  with  scarcely  a  pretence  of  concealment. 
With  the  introduction  of  the  vicious  opium  habit  the 
British  had  nothing  to  do;  but  they  contrived  to  turn 
it  to  good  account. 

The  Emperor  Tao  Kwang,  moved,  it  is  said,  by  the 
unhappy  fate  of  one  of  his  sons  who  had  fallen  a 
victim  to  the  seductive  poison,  resolved  at  all  hazards 
to  put  a  stop  to  a  traffic  so  ruinous  to  his  people. 
Commissioner  Lin,  a  native  of  Foochow,  was  trans- 
ferred from  the  viceroyalty  of  Wuchang  to  that  of 
Canton  and  clothed  with  plenary  powers  for  the 
execution  of  this  decree.  To  understand  the  manner 
in  which  he  undertook  to  execute  the  will  pi  his  master 
it  must  be  remembered  that  diplomatic  intercourse 
had  as  yet  no  existence  in  China,  because  she  con- 
sidered herself  as  sustaining  to  foreign  nations  no 
other  relation  than  that  of  a  suzerain  to  a  vassal. 
Her  mandarins  scorned  to  hold  direct  communication 
with  any  of  the  superintendents  of  foreign  commerce — 


THE  OPIUM  WAR  153 

receiving  petitions  and  sending  mandates  through  the 
hong  merchants,  thirteen  native  firms  which  had 
purchased  a  monopoly  of  foreign  trade. 

In  1834  Lord  Napier  was  appointed  to  the  humble 
position  of  superintendent  of  British  trade  in  China, 
He  arrived  at  Macao  on  July  15  of  that  year,  and  an- 
nounced his  appointment  by  a  letter  to  the  prefect, 
which  was  handed  for  transmission  to  the  commander 
of  the  city  gate  of  Canton — a  barrier  which  no  foreigner 
was  permitted  to  pass.  The  letter  was  returned 
through  the  brokers  without  any  answer  other  than  a 
line  on  the  cover  informing  the"  barbarian  eye ' '  (consul) 
that  the  document  was ' '  tossed  back ' '  because  it  was  not 
superscribed  with  the  character  pin  (or  ping),  which 
signifies  a  "humble  petition." 

This  was  the  beginning  of  sorrows  for  China  as 
well  as  for  poor  Napier,  who,  failing  in  his  efforts  to 
communicate  with  the  mandarins  on  equal  terms, 
retired  to  the  Portuguese  settlement  of  Macao  and 
died  of  disappointment.  The  eminent  American  states- 
man, John  Quincy  Adams,  speaking  in  later  years  of 
the  war  that  ensued,  declared  that  its  cause  was  not 
opium  but  a  pin,  i.  e.,  an  insolent  assumption  of  superi- 
ority on  the  part  of  China. 

The  irrepressible  conflict  provoked  by  these  in* 
dignities  was  precipitated  in  1839  by  the  action  of 
the  new  viceroy,  who  undertook  to  effect  a  summary 
suppression  of  the  traffic  in  opium.  One  morning 
shortly  after  his  arrival,  the  foreigners  at  Canton, 
who  were  always  locked  up  at  night  for  their  own 
safety,  awoke  to  find  themselves  surrounded  by  a 
body  of  soldiers  and  threatened  with   indiscriminate 


154  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

slaughter  unless  they  surrendered  the  obnoxious  drug, 
stored  on  their  opium  hulks,  at  an  anchorage  outside 
the  harbour. 

While  they  were  debating  as  to  what  action  to  take, 
Captain  Charles  Elliot,  the  new  superintendent,  came 
up  from  Macao  and  bravely  insisted  on  sharing  the 
duress  of  his  countrymen.  Calling  the  merchants 
together  he  requested  them  to  surrender  their  opium 
to  him,  to  be  used  in  the  service  of  the  Queen  as  a 
ransom  for  the  lives  of  her  subjects,  assuring  them 
that  Her  Majesty's  Government  would  take  care  that 
they  should  be  properly  indemnified.  Twenty  thou- 
sand chests  of  opium  were  handed  over  to  the  viceroy 
(who  destroyed  the  drug  by  mixing  it  with  quicklime 
in  huge  vats);  and  the  prisoners  were  set  at  liberty. 

The  viceroy  fondly  imagined  that  the  incident  was 
closed,  and  flattered  himself  [that  he  had  gained 
an  easier  victory  than  he  could  have  done  by  sending 
his  junks  against  the  armed  ships  of  the  smugglers. 
Little  did  he  suspect  that  he  had  lighted  a  slow-match, 
that  would  blow  up  the  walls  of  his  own  fortress 
and  place  the  throne  itself  at  the  mercy  of  the 
"barbarian." 

A  strong  force  was  despatched  to  China  to  exact 
an  indemnity,  for  which  the  honour  of  the  Crown 
had  been  pledged,  and  to  punish  the  Chinese  for  the 
cut-throat  fashion  in  which  they  had  sought  to  suppress 
a  prohibited  trade.  The  proud  city  of  Canton  averted 
a  bombardment  by  paying  a  ransom  of  $6,000,000; 
islands  and  seaports  were  occupied  by  British  troops 
as  far  north  as  the  River  Yang-tse;  and  Nanking,  the 
ancient  capital,  was  only  saved  from  falling  into  their 


THE  OPIUM  WAR  155 

hands  by  'the  acceptance  of  such  conditions  of  peace 
as  Sir  Henry  Pottinger  saw  fit  to  impose. 

Those  conditions  were  astonishingly  moderate  for 
a  conqueror  who,  unembarrassed  by  the  interests 
of  other  powers,  might  have  taken  the  whole  empire. 
They  were,  besides  payment  for  the  destroyed  drug,  the 
opening  of  five  ports  to  British  trade,  and  the  cession 
to  Great  Britain  of  Hong  Kong,  a  rocky  islet  which  was 
then  the  abode  of  fishermen  and  pirates,  but  which 
to-day  claims  to  outrank  all  the  seaports  of  the  world 
in  the  amount  of  its  tonnage.  Not  a  word,  be  it 
noted,  about  opening  up  the  vast  interior,  not  a  syllable 
in  favour  of  legalising  the  opium  traffic,  or  tolerating 
Christianity. 

So  much  for  the  charge  that  this  war,  which  bears 
a  malodorous  name,  was  waged  for  the  purpose  of 
compelling  China  to  submit  to  the  continuance  of  an 
immoral  traffic.  That  a  smuggling  trade  would  go  on 
with  impunity  was  no  doubt  foreseen  and  reckoned 
on  by  interested  parties ;  but  it  is  morally  certain  that 
if  the  Chinese  had  understood  how  to  deal  with  it  they 
might  have  rid  themselves  of  the  incubus  without 
provoking  the  discharge  of  another  shot. 

Here  ends  the  first  act,  in  1842;  and  in  it  I  may 
claim  a  personal  interest  from  the  fact  that  my  at- 
tention was  first  turned  to  China  as  a  mission  field 
by  the  boom  of  British  cannon  in  the  Opium  War. 

China  was  not  opened;  but  five  gates  were  set  ajar 
against  her  will.  For  that  she  has  to  thank  the  pride 
and  ignorance  of  emperor  and  viceroy  which  betrayed 
them  into  the  blunder  of  dealing  with  British  merchants 
as  a  policeman  deals  with  pickpockets.     For  the  first 


156  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

time  in  her  history  she  was  made  aware  of  the  ex- 
istence of  nations  with  which  she  would  have  to  com- 
municate on  a  footing  of  equaUty. 

The  moderation  and  forbearance  of  Pottinger  in 
refraining  from  demanding  larger  concessions,  and 
in  leaving  the  full  consequences  of  this  war  to  be  un- 
folded by  the  progress  of  time,  may  fairly  challenge 
comparison  with  the  politic  procedure  of  Commodore 
Perry  in  dealing  with  Japan  in  1854.  One  may  ask, 
too,  would  Japan  have  come  to  terms  so  readily  if  she 
had  not  seen  her  huge  neighbour  bowing  to  superior 
force? 


An  important  consequence  of  the  Opium  War  was 
the  outbreak  of  rebellions  in  different  parts  of  the 
Empire.  The  prestige  of  the  Tartars  was  in  the  dust. 
Hitherto  deemed  invincible,  they  had  been  beaten 
by  a  handful  of  foreigners.  Was  not  this  a  sure  sign 
that  their  divine  commission  had  been  withdrawn 
by  the  Court  of  Heaven?  If  so,  might  it  not  be 
possible  to  wrest  the  sceptre  from  their  feeble  grasp, 
and  emancipate  the  Chinese  race? 

Private  ambition  was  kindled  at  the  prospect,  and 
patriotism  was  invoked  to  induce  the  people  to 
make  common  cause.  Three  parties  entered  the 
field:  the  Tai-pings  of  the  South,  the  "Red-haired" 
on  the  seacoast,  and  the  Nienfi  in  the  north.  Neither 
of  the  latter  two  deserves  notice;  but  the  first- named 
made  for  themselves  a  place  in  history  which  one  is 


THE  TAI-PING  REBELLION  157 

not  at  liberty  to  ignore,  even  if  their  story  were  less 
romantic  than  it  is.  It  will  be  convenient  to  intro- 
duce here  the  following  note  on  the  Tai-ping 
rebellion. 

THE   TAI-PING   REBELLION 

In  1847  2-  young  man  of  good  education  and  pleasing 
manners,  named  Hung  Siu-tsuen,  presented  himself 
at  the  American  Baptist  mission  in  Canton,  saying 
he  had  seen  their  sacred  book  and  desired  instruction. 
This  he  received  from  the  Rev.  Issachar  Roberts;  and  he 
was  duly  enrolled  as  a  catechumen.  Without  receiving 
the  sealing  ordinance,  or  taking  his  instructor  into 
confidence,  Siu-tsuen  returned  to  his  home  at  Hwa- 
hien  and  began  to  propagate  his  new  creed.  His 
talents  and  zeal  won  adherents,  whom  he  organised 
into  a  society  called  Shang-ti-hwui,  "  the  Church  of  the 
supreme  God."  Persecution  transformed  it  into  a 
political  party,  to  which  multitudes  were  attracted 
by  a  variety  of  motives. 

Following  the  early  Church,  in  the  absence  of  any 
modem  model,  his  converts  expected  and  received 
spiritual  gifts.  Shall  we  describe  such  manifestations 
as  hysteria,  hypnotism,  or  hypocrisy?  Their  fanaticism 
was  contagious,  especially  after  their  flight  to  the 
mountains  of  Kwangsi.  There  Siu-tsuen  boldly  raised 
the  flag  of  rebellion  and  proclaimed  that  he  had  a 
divine  call  to  restore  the  throne  to  the  Chinese  race, 
and  to  deliver  the  people  from  the  curse  of  idolatry. 
In  this  twofold  crusade  he  was  ably  seconded  by  one 
Yang,  who  possessed  all  the  qualities  of  a  successful 
hierophant.     Shrewd  and  calculating,  Yang  was  able 


/\ 


s 

\ 


158  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

at  will  to  bring  on  cataleptic  fits,  during  which  his 
utterances  passed  for  the  words  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 

The  new  empire  which  they  were  trying  to  es- 
tablish, they  called  Tai-ping  Tien-kwoh,  "The  Kingdom 
of  Heaven  and  the  reign  of  peace."  Hung  was  em- 
peror, to  be  saluted  with  Wansue!  (Japanese,  Banzai!) 
"  10,000  years!"  Yang  as  prince-premier  was  saluted 
with  "9,000  years,"  nine-tenths  of  a  banzai.  He 
was  the  medium  of  communication  with  the  Court 
of  Heaven;  and  all  their  greater  movements 
were  made  by  command  of  Shang-ti,  the  Supreme 
Ruler. 

On  one  occasion  Yang  went  into  a  trance  and 
declared  that  Shang-ti  was  displeased  by  something 
done  by  his  chief,  and  required  the  latter  to  receive 
a  castigation  on  his  naked  shoulders.  The  chief  sub- 
mitted, whether  from  credulity  or  from  policy  it 
might  not  be  easy  to  say;  but  thereby  the  faith  of 
his  followers  seems  to  have  been  confirmed  rather  than 
shaken.  Nor  did  Yang  take  advantage  of  his  chief's 
disgrace  to  usurp  his  place  or  to  treat  him  as  a  puppet. 

Through  Yang  it  was  revealed  that  they  were  to 
leave  their  mountain  fortress  and  strike  for  Nanking, 
which  had  been  made  the  capital  on  the  expulsion  of 
the  Mongols,  and  which  was  destined  to  enjoy  the 
same  dignity  on  the  overthrow  of  the  Manchus.  That 
programme,  one  of  unexampled  daring,  was  promptly 
put  into  execution.  Descending  into  the  plains  of 
Hunan,  like  a  mountain  torrent  they  swept  every- 
thing before  them  and  began  their  march  towards  the 
central  stronghold  fifteen  hundred  miles  distant. 
Striking  the  "Great  River"  at  Hankow,  they  pillaged 


THE  TAI-PING  REBELLION  159 

the  three  rich  cities  Wuchang,  Hanyang,  and  Hankow, 
and,  seizing  all  the  junks,  committed  themselves  to  its 
current  without  a  doubt  as  to  the  issue  of  their  voyage. 

Nanking  was  carried  by  assault  despite  the  alleged 
impregnability  of  its  ramparts,  and  despite  also  a 
garrison  of  25,000  Manchus.  These  last  must  have 
fought  with  the  fury  of  despair;  for  they  well  knew 
what  fate  awaited  them.  Not  one  was  spared  to  tell 
the  tale — this  was  in  1853.  There  the  Tai-pings  held 
their  ground  for  ten  years ;  and  it  is  safe  to  affirm  that 
without  the  aid  of  foreign  missionaries  they  never 
would  have  been  dislodged. 

The  second  part  of  their  enterprise — ^^the  expulsion 
of  the  Manchus  from  Peking — ended  in  defeat.  A 
strong  detachment  was  sent  north  by  way  of  the 
Grand  Canal.  At  first  they  met  with  great  success 
— ^no  town  or  city  was  able  to  check  their  progress, 
which  resembled  Napoleon's  invasion  of  Russia.  At 
the  beginning  of  winter  they  were  met  by  a  strong 
force  under  the  Mongol  prince  Sengkolinsin;  then  came 
the  more  dreaded  generals — ^January  and  February. 
Unable  to  make  headway,  they  went  into  winter 
quarters,  and  committed  the  blunder  of  dividing 
themselves  between  two  towns,  where  they  were  be- 
sieged and  cut  off  in  detail. 

In  the  meantime  the  eyes  of  the  world  were  turned 
toward  Nanking.  Ships  of  war  were  sent  to  reconnoitre 
and  Consul  T.  T.  Meadows,  who  accompanied  the 
Hermes,  made  a  report  full  of  sympathy;  but  the 
failure  of  their  expedition  to  the  north  deterred  the 
nation  from  any  formal  recognition  of  the  Tai-ping 
government. 


i6o  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

Missionaries  were  attracted  by  their  profession  of 
Christianity.  Among  others,  I  made  an  unsuccessfiil 
attempt  to  reach  them.  Unable  to  induce  my  boat- 
men to  run  the  blockade,  I  returned  home  and  took 
up  the  pen  in  their  defence.  My  letters  were  well 
received,  but  they  did  not  prevent  soldiers  of  fortune, 
like  the  American  Frederick  G.  Ward  and  Colonel 
Gordon  of  the  British  army,  throwing  their  swords 
into  the  scale. 

Two  Sabbatarians  hearing  that  the  rebels  observed 
Saturday  for  their  day  of  rest,  posted  off  to  confirm 
them  in  that  ancient  usage.  I^eaming  at  an  outpost 
that  the  seeming  agreement  with  their  own  practice 
grew  out  of  a  mistake  in  reckoning,  they  did  not 
continue  their  journey. 

A  missionary  who  actually  penetrated  to  the  rebel 
headquarters  was  the  Rev.  Issachar  Roberts,  the  first 
instructor  of  the  rebel  chief.  The  latter  had  sent 
him  a  message  inviting  him  to  court.  His  stay  was 
not  long.  He  found  that  his  quondam  disciple  had 
substituted  a  new  mode  of  baptism,  neither  sprinkling 
nor  immersion,  but  washing  the  pit  of  the  stomach 
J  with  a  towel  dipped  in  warm  water!  Who  says  the 
Chinese  are  not  original?  It  is  probable  that  Roberts's 
dispute  lay  deeper  than  a  mere  ceremony.  Professing 
a  New  Testament  creed,  the  rebel  chief  shaped  his 
practice  on  Old  Testament  examples — killing  men  as 
ruthlessly  as  David,  and,  like  Solomon,  filling  his 
harem  with  women.  A  remonstrance  on  either  head 
was  certain  to  bring  danger;  it  was  said  indeed  that 
Roberts's  life  was  threatened. 

Some  queer  titles  were  adopted  by  the  Tai-pings. 


THE  TAI-PING  REBELLION  i6i 

As  stated  above,  the  premier  was  styled  "Father  of 
9,000  years";  other  princes  had  to  content  them- 
selves with  7,000,  6,000,  etc. — or  seven-tenths  and 
six- tenths  of  a  "Live  forever!"  Christ  was  the 
"Heavenly  Elder  Brother";  and  the  chief  called  him- 
self ' '  Younger  Brother  of  Jesus  Christ. ' '  These  designa- 
tions might  excite  a  smile;  but  v/hen  he  called  Yang, 
his  adviser,  the  "Holy  Ghost,"  one  felt  like  stopping 
one's  ears,  as  did  the  Hebrews  of  old.  The  loose 
morals  of  the  Tai-pings  and  their  travesty  of  sacred 
things  horrified  the  Christian  world;  and  Gordon  no 
doubt  felt  that  he  was  doing  God  a  service  in  break- 
ing up  a  horde  of  blasphemers  and  blackguards. 

Gordon's  victory  won  an  earldom  for  Li  Hung  Chang; 
but  the  Chinese  conferred  no  posthumous  honours  on 
Gordon  as  they  did  on  Ward,  who  has  a  temple  and 
is  reckoned  among  the  gods  of  the  empire. 

The  Tai-pings  were  commonly  called  Changmao, 
"long-haired"  rebels,  because  they  rejected  the  ton- 
sure and  "pigtail"  as  marks  of  subjection.  They 
printed  at  Nanking,  by  what  they  called  "Imperial 
authority,"  an  edition  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  At 
one  time  Lord  Elgin,  disgusted  by  the  conduct  of  the 
Peking  Government,  proposed  to  make  terms  with 
the  court  at  Nanking.  The  French  minister  refused 
to  cooperate,  partly  because  the  rebels  had  not  been 
careful  to  distinguish  between  the  images  in  Roman 
Catholic  chapels  and  those  in  pagan  temples,  but 
chiefly  from  an  objection  to  the  ascendency  of  Prot- 
estant influence,  coupled  with  a  fear  of  losing  the 
power  that  comes  from  a  protectorate  of  Roman 
Catholic  missions.     How  different  would  have  been 


i62  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

the  future  of  China  had  the  allied  powers  backed  up 
the  Tai-pings  against  the  Manchus! 


ACT    2.      THE    "arrow"    WAR,    1857-1860 

Of  the  second  act  in  this  grand  drama  on  the  world's 
wide  stage,  a  vessel,  named  the  Arrow,  was,  like  opium 
in  the  former  conflict,  the  occasion,  not  the  cause.  The 
cause  was,  as  before,  pride  and  ignorance  on  the  part 
of  the  Chinese,  though  the  British  are  not  to  be  al- 
together exonerated.  Their  flag  was  compromised; 
and  they  sought  to  protect  it.  Fifteen  years  of  prof- 
itable commerce  had  passed,  during  which  China 
had  been  a  double  gainer,  receiving  light  and  experi- 
ence in  addition  to  less  valuable  commodities,  when 
Viceroy  Yeh  seized  the  lorcha  Arrow,  on  a  charge 
of  piracy.  Though  owned  by  Chinese,  she  was  regis- 
tered in  Hong  Kong,  and  sailed  under  the  British 
flag.  Had  the  viceroy  handed  her  over  to  a  British 
court  for  trial,  justice  would  no  doubt  have  been  done 
to  the  delinquents,  and  the  two  nations  would  not  have 
been  embroiled;  but,  haughty  as  well  as  hasty,  the 
viceroy  declined  to  admit  that  the  British  Govern- 
ment had  any  right  to  interfere  with  his  proceedings. 
Unfortunately  (or  fortunately)  British  interests  at 
Canton  were  in  the  hands  of  Consul  Parkes,  afterward 
Sir  Harry  Parkes,  the  renowned  plenipotentiary  at 
Peking  and  Tokio. 

Sir  John  Bowring  was  governor  of  Hong  Kong,  with 
the  oversight  of  British  interests  in  the  Empire.  A 
gifted  poet,  and  an  enthusiastic  advocate  of  universal 
peace,  he  was  a  man  who  might  be  counted  on,  if  in 


THE  ARROW  WAR  163 

the  power  of  man,  to  hold  the  dogs  of  war  in  leash. 
But  he,  too,  had  been  consul  at  Canton  and  he  knew 
by  experience  the  quagmire  in  which  the  best  intentions 
were  liable  to  be  swamped. 

Parkes,  whom  I  came  to  know  as  Her  Britannic 
Majesty's  minister  in  Peking,  was  the  soul  of  honour, 
as  upright  as  any  man  who  walked  the  earth.  But 
with  all  his  rectitude,  he,  like  the  Viceroy  Yeh,  was 
irascible  and  unyielding.  When  the  viceroy  refused 
his  demand  for  the  rendition  of  the  Arrow  and  her 
crew,  he  menaced  him  with  the  weight  of  the  lion's 
paw.  Alarmed,  but  not  cowed,  the  viceroy  sent  the 
prisoners  in  fetters  to  the  consulate,  instead  of  replac- 
ing them  on  board  their  ship;  nor  did  he  vouchsafe 
a  word  of  courtesy  or  apology.  Parkes,  too  fiery 
to  overlook  such  contemptuous  informality,  sent  them 
back,  much  as  a  football  is  kicked  from  one  to  another; 
and  the  viceroy,  incensed  beyond  measure,  ordered 
their  heads  to  be  chopped  off  without  a  trial. 

Here  was  a  Gordian  knot,  which  nothing  but  the 
sword  could  loose.  War  was  provoked  as  before  by 
the  rashness  of  a  viceroy.  The  peace-loving  governor 
did  not  choose  to  swallow  the  affront  to  his  country, 
nor  did  the  occupant  of  the  Dragon  Throne  deign  to 
interfere;  looking  on  the  situation  with  the  same 
sublime  indifference  with  which  the  King  of  Persia 
regarded  the  warlike  preparations  of  the  younger 
Cyrus,  when  he  supposed,  as  Xenophon  tells  us,  that 
he  was  only  going  to  fight  out  a  feud  with  a  neighbour- 
ing satrap.  How  could  China  be  opened;  how  was 
a  stable  equilibrium  possible  so  long  as  foreign  powers 
were  kept  at  a  distance  from  the  capital  of  the  Empire  ? 


1 64  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

In  three  months  the  haughty  viceroy  was  a  prisoner 
in  India,  never  to  return,  and  his  provincial  capital 
was  held  by  a  garrison  of  British  troops.  On  this 
occasion  the  old  blunder  of  admitting  the  city  to 
ransom  was  not  repeated,  else  Canton  might  have 
continued  to  be  a  hotbed  of  seditious  plots  and  anti- 
foreign  hostilities.  Parkes  knew  the  people,  and  he 
knew  their  rulers  also.  He  was  accordingly  allowed 
to  have  his  own  way  in  dealing  with  them.  The  viceroy 
being  out  of  the  way,  he  proposed  to  Pehkwei,  the 
Manchu  governor,  to  take  his  place  and  carry  on  the 
provincial  government  as  if  the  two  nations  were  at 
peace.  Strange  to  say,  the  governor  did  not  decline 
the  task.  That  he  did  not  was  due  to  the  fact  that  he 
disapproved  the  policy  of  the  viceroy,  and  that  he  put 
faith  in  the  assurance  that  Great  Britain  harboured 
no  design  against  the  reigning  house  or  its  territorial 
domain. 

To  the  surprise  of  the  Chinese,  who  in  their  native 
histories  find  that  an  Asiatic  conqueror  always  takes 
possession  of  as  much  territory  as  he  is  able  to  hold, 
it  soon  became  evident  that  the  Queen  of  England 
did  not  make  war  in  the  spirit  of  conquest.  Her 
premier,  Lord  Palmerston,  invited  the  cooperation  of 
France,  Russia,  and  the  United  States,  in  a  movement 
which  was  expected  to  issue  advantageously  to  all, 
especially  to  China.  France,  at  that  time  under  an 
ambitious  successor  of  the  great  Napoleon,  seized 
the  opportunity  to  contribute  a  strong  contingent, 
with  the  view  of  checkmating  England  and  of  obtain- 
ing for  herself  a  free  hand  in  Indo-China,  possibly 
in  China  Proper  also.     For  assuming  a  hostile  attitude 


-^  Of  THE 


CALIFOH^ 


r- 


i       f  II 


THE  ARROW  WAR  165 

towards  China,  she  found  a  pretext  in  the  judicial 
murder  of  a  missionary  in  Kwangsi,  just  as  Germany 
found  two  of  her  missionaries  similarly  useful  as  an 
excuse  for  the  occupation  of  Kiao-Chao  in  1897.  No 
wonder  the  Chinese  have  grown  cautious  how  they 
molest  a  missionary;  but  they  needed  practical  teach- 
ing before  they  learned  the  lesson. 

Unable  to  take  a  morsel  of  China  as  long  as  his 
powerful  ally  abstained  from  territorial  aggrandise- 
ment, Louis  Napoleon  subsequently  employed  his 
troops  to  enlarge  the  borders  of  a  small  state  which 
the  Freiich  claimed  in  Annam,  laying  the  foundation 
of  a  dominion  which  goes  far  to  console  them  for  the 
loss  of  India.  America  and  Russia,  having  no  wrongs 
to  redress,  declined  to  send  troops,  but  consented  to 
give  moral  support  to  a  movement  for  placing  foreign 
relations  with  China  on  a  satisfactory  basis. 

In  the  spring  of  1858,  the  representatives  of  the 
four  powers  met  at  the  mouth  of  the  Peiho,  cooperating 
in  a  loose  sort  of  concert  which  permitted  each  one 
to  carry  on  negotiations  on  his  own  account.  As  in- 
terpreter to  the  Hon.  W.  B.  Reed,  the  American  minister, 
I  enjoyed  the  best  of  opportunities  for  observing 
what  went  on  behind  the  scenes,  besides  being  a  specta- 
tor of  more  than  one  battle. 

The  neutrals,  arriving  in  advance  of  the  belligerents, 
opened  negotiations  with  the  Viceroy  of  Chihli,  which 
might  have  added  supplementary  articles,  but  must 
have  left  the  old  treaties  substantially  unchanged. 
The  other  envoys  coming  on  the  stage  insisted  that 
the  viceroy  should  wear  the  title  and  be  clothed  with 
the   powers   of   a   plenipotentiary.     When   that   was 


1 66  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

refused,  as  being  "incompatible  with  the  absolute 
sovereignty  of  the  Emperor,"  they  stormed  the  forts 
and  proceeded  to  Tientsin  where  they  were  met  by 
men  whose  credentials  were  made  out  in  due  form, 
though  it  is  doubtful  if  their  powers  exceeded  those 
of  the  crestfallen  viceroy.  A  pitiful  artifice  to  main- 
tain their  affectation  of  superiority  was  the  placing 
of  the  names  of  foreign  countries  one  space  lower  than 
that  of  China  in  the  despatch  announcing  their  appoint- 
ment. When  this  covert  insult  was  pointed  out  they 
apologised  for  a  clerical  error,  and  had  the  despatches 
rectified. 

The  allies  were  able  to  dictate  their  own  terms; 
and  they  got  all  they  asked  for,  though,  as  will  be 
seen,  they  did  not  ask  enough.  The  rest  of  us  got  the 
same,  though  we  had  struck  no  blow  and  shed  no 
blood.  One  article,  known  as  "the  most-favoured- 
nation clause"  (already  in  the  treaty  of  1844),  was 
all  that  we  required  to  enable  us  to  pick  up  the  fruit 
when  others  shook  the  tree. 

Four  additional  seaports  were  opened,  but  Tienstin, 
where  the  treaties  were  drawn  up,  was  not  one  of 
them.  I  remember  hearing  Lord  Elgin,  whose  will 
was  absolute,  say  that  he  was  not  willing  to  have  it 
thrown  open  to  commerce,  because  in  that  case  it 
would  be  used  to  overawe  the  capital — just  as  if  over- 
aweing  were  not  the  very  thing  needed  to  make  a 
bigoted  government  enter  on  the  path  of  progress. 
Never  did  a  man  in  repute  for  statesmanship  show 
himself  more  shortsighted.  His  blunder  led  to  the 
renewal  of  the  war,  and  its  continuance  for  two  more 
years. 


THE  ARROW  WAR  167 

The  next  year  when  the  envoys  came  to  the  mouth 
of  the  river,  on  their  way  to  Peking  to  exchange  ratified 
copies  of  their  treaties,  they  found  the  forts  rebuilt, 
the  river  closed,  and  access  to  the  capital  by  way  of 
Tientsin  bluntly  refused.  In  taking  this  action,  the 
Chinese  were  not  chargeable  with  a  breach  of  faith; 
but  the  allies,  feeling  insulted  at  having  the  door  shut 
in  their  faces,  decided  to  force  it  open.  They  had  a 
strong  squadron;  but  their  gunboats  were  no  match 
for  the  forts.  Some  were  sunk;  others  were  beached; 
and  the  day  ended  in  disastrous  defeat.  Though 
taking  no  part  in  the  conflict  the  Americans  were  not 
indifferent  spectators.  Hearing  that  the  British  ad- 
miral was  wounded,  their  commodore,  the  brave  old 
Tatnall,  went  through  a  shower  of  bullets  to  express 
his  sympathy,  getting  his  boat  shattered  and  losing 
a  man  on  the  way.  When  requested  to  lend  a  helping 
hand,  he  exclaimed  "Blood  is  thicker  than  water; 
and,  throwing  neutrality  to  the  winds,  he  proceeded 
to  tow  up  a  flotilla  of  British  barges.  His  words  have 
echoed  around  the  world;  and  his  act,  though  im- 
politic from  the  viewpoint  of  diplomacy,  had  the  effect 
of  knitting  closer  the  ties  of  two  kindred  nations. 

Seeing  the  repulse  of  the  allies,  the  American  minis- 
ter, the  Hon.  J.  E.  Ward,  resolved  to  accept  an  offer 
which  they  had  declined,  namely,  to  proceed  to  the 
capital  by  land  under  a  Chinese  escort.  His  country 
was  pledged  in  the  treaty,  of  which  he  was  the  bearer, 
to  use  her  good  offices  on  the  occurrence  of  difficulties 
with  other  powers.  Without  cavilling  at  the  pre- 
scribed route  or  mode  of  conveyance,  he  felt  it  his 
duty  to  present  himself  before  the  Throne  as  speedily 


»» t 


1 68  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

as  possible  in  the  hope  of  averting  a  threatened 
calamity.  For  him,  it  was  an  opportunity  to  do 
something  great  and  good;  for  China,  it  was  the  last 
chance  to  ward  off  a  crushing  blow.  But  so  elated 
were  the  Chinese  by  their  unexpected  success  that  they 
were  in  no  mood  to  accept  the  services  of  a  mediator. 
The  Emperor  insisted  that  he  should  go  on  his  knees 
like  the  tribute-bearer  from  a  vassal  state.  "Tell 
them,"  said  Mr.  Ward,  "  that  I  go  on  my  knees  only  to 
God  and  woman" — a  speech  brave  and  chivalrous, 
but  undignified  for  a  minister  and  unintelligible  to  the 
Chinese.  With  this  he  quitted  the  capital  and  left 
China  to  her  fate.  He  was  not  the  first  envoy  to  meet 
a  rude  rebuff  at  the  Chinese  court.  In  1816  Lord 
Amherst  was  not  allowed  to  see  the  "Dragon's  Face" 
because  he  refused  to  kneel.  At  that  date  England 
was  not  in  a  position  to  punish  the  insult;  but  it  had 
something  to  do  with  the  war  of  1839.  In  1859  it 
was  pitiful  to  see  a  power  whose  existence  was  hanging 
in  the  scales  alienate  a  friend  by  unseemly  insolence. 

The  following  year  (i860)  saw  the  combined  forces 
of  two  empires  at  the  gates  of  Peking.  The  summer 
palace  was  laid  in  ashes  to  punish  the  murder  of  a 
company  of  men  and  officers  under  a  flag  of  truce; 
and  it  continues  to  be  an  unsightly  ruin.  The  Em- 
peror fled  to  Tartary  to  find  a  grave;  and  throne  and 
capital  were  for  the  first  time  at  the  mercy  of  an 
Occidental  army.  On  the  accession  of  Hien-feng,  in 
1850,  an  old  counsellor  advised  him  to  make  it  his  duty 
to  "restore  the  restrictions  all  along  the  coast."  His 
attempt  to  do  this  was  one  source  of  his  misfortunes. 
Supplementary  articles  were  signed  within  the  walls, 


WAR  WITH  FRANCE  169 

by  which  China  relinquished  her  absurd  pretensions, 
abandoned  her  long  seclusion,  and,  at  the  instance  of 
France,  threw  open  the  whole  empire  to  the  labours  of 
Christian  missions.  They  had  been  admitted  by 
rescript  to  the  Five  Ports,  but  no  further. 

Thus  ends  the  second  act  of  the  drama;  and  a  spec- 
tator must  be  sadly  deficient  in  spiritual  insight  if  he 
does  not  perceive  the  hand  of  God  overruling  the 
strife  of  nations  and  the  blunders  of  statesmen. 

ACT    3.     WAR    WITH     FRANCE 

The  curtain  rises  on  the  third  act  of  the  drama  in 
1885.  Peking  was  open  to  residence,  and  I  had  charge 
of  a  college  for  the  training  of  diplomatic  agents. 

I  was  at  Pearl  Grotto,  my  summer  refuge  near  Peking, 
when  I  was  called  to  town  by  a  messenger  from  the 
Board  of  Foreign  Affairs.  The  ministers  informed  me 
that  the  French  had  destroyed  their  fleet  and  seized 
their  arsenal  at  Foochow.  "This,"  they  said,  " is  war. 
We  desire  to  know  how  the  non-combatants  of  the 
enemy  are  to  be  treated  according  to  the  rules  of 
international  law."  I  wrote  out  a  brief  statement 
culled  from  text-books,  which  I  had  myself  translated 
for  the  use  of  the  Chinese  Government;  but  before  I 
had  finished  writing  a  clerk  came  to  say  that  the 
Grand  Council  wished  to  have  it  as  soon  as  possible, 
as  they  were  going  to  draw  up  a  decree  on  the  subject. 
The  next  day  an  imperial  decree  proclaimed  a  state  of 
war  and  assured  French  people  in  China  that  if  they 
refrained  from  taking  part  in  any  hostile  act  they  might 
remain  in  their  places,  and  count  on  full  protection. 
Nobly  did  the  government  of  the  day  redeem  its  pledge. 


lyo  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

Not  a  missionary  was  molested  in  the  interior ;  and  two 
French  professors  belonging  to  my  own  faculty  were 
permitted  to  go  on  with  the  instruction  of  their  classes. 

There  was  not  much  fighting.  The  French  seized 
Formosa;  and  both  parties  were  preparing  for  a  trial 
of  strength,  when  a  seemingly  unimportant  occurrence 
led  them  to  come  to  an  understanding.  A  small 
steamer  belonging  to  the  customs  service,  employed 
in  supplying  the  wants  of  lighthouses,  having  been 
taken  by  the  French,  Sir  Robert  Hart  applied  to  the 
French  premier,  Jules  Ferry,  for  its  release.  This  was 
readily  granted;  and  an  intimation  was  at  the  same 
time  given  that  the  French  would  welcome  overtures 
for  a  settlement  of  the  quarrel.  Terms  were  easily 
agreed  upon  and  the  two  parties  resumed  the  status 
quo  ante  helium. 

So  far  as  the  stipulations  were  concerned  neither 
party  had  gained  or  lost  anything,  yet  as  a  matter  of 
fact  France  had  scored  a  substantial  victory.  She  was 
henceforward  left  in  quiet  possession  of  Tongking,  a 
principality  which  China  had  regarded  as  a  vassal  and 
endeavoured  to  protect. 

ACT    4.       WAR    WITH    JAPAN 

China  had  not  thoroughly  learned  the  lesson  sug- 
gested by  this  experience;  for  ten  years  later  a  fourth 
act  in  the  drama  grew  out  of  her  unwise  attempt  to 
protect  another  vassal. 

In  1894  the  Japanese,  provoked  by  Chma's  inter- 
ference with  their  enterprises  in  Korea,  boldly  drew 
the  sword  and  won  for  themselves  a  place  among  the 
great  powers.     I  was  in  Japan  when  the  war  broke 


WAR  WITH  JAPAN  171 

out,  and,  being  asked  by  a  company  of  foreigners 
what  I  thought  of  Japan's  chances,  answered,  "The 
swordfish  can  kill  the  whale." 

Not  merely  did  the  islanders  expel  the  Chinese  from 
the  Korean  peninsula,  but  they  took  possession  of 
those  very  districts  in  Manchuria  from  which  they 
have  but  yesterday  ousted  the  Russians.  Peking 
itself  was  in  danger  when  Li  Hung  Chang  was  sent  to 
the  Mikado  to  sue  for  peace.  Luckily  for  China  a 
Japanese  assassin  lodged  a  bullet  in  the  head  of  her 
ambassador;  and  the  Mikado,  ashamed  of  that  cow- 
ardly act,  granted  peace  on  easy  conditions.  China's 
greatest  statesman  carried  that  bullet  in  his  dura 
mater  to  the  end  of  his  days,  proud  to  have  made  him- 
self an  offering  for  his  country,  and  rejoicing  that  one 
little  ball  had  silenced  the  batteries  of  two  empires. 

By  the  terms  of  the  treaty,  Japan  was  to  be  left 
in  possession  of  Port  Arthur  and  Liao-tung.  But 
this  arrangement  was  in  fatal  opposition  to  the  policy 
of  a  great  power  which  had  already  cast  covetous  eyes 
on  the  rich  provinces  of  Manchuria.  Securing  the 
support  of  France  and  Germany,  Russia  compelled 
the  Japanese  to  withdraw;  and  in  the  course  of  three 
years  she  herself  occupied  those  very  positions,  kind- 
ling in  the  bosom  of  Japan  the  fires  of  revenge,  and 
sowing  the  seeds  of  another  war.* 

The  effect  of  China's  defeat  at  the  hands  of  her 
despised  neighbour,  was,  if  possible,  more  profound 
than   that   of   her   humiliation   by   the   English   and 


*  The  Russo-Japanese  war  lies  outside  of  our  present  programme 
because  Ohina  was  not  a  party  to  it,  though  it  involved  her  interests  and 
even  her  existence.     The  subject  will  be  treated  in  another  chapter. 


172  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

French  in  i860.  She  saw  how  the  adoption  of  Western 
methods  had  clothed  a  small  Oriental  people  with 
irresistible  might;  and  her  wisest  statesmen  set  them- 
selves to  work  a  similar  transformation  in  their  anti- 
quated empire.  The  young  Emperor  showed  himself 
an  apt  pupil,  issuing  a  series  of  reformatory  edicts, 
which  alarmed  the  conservatives  and  provoked  a 
reaction  that  constitutes  the  last  act  in  this  tremendous 
drama. 

ACT   5.      THE    BOXER    WAR 

The  fifth  act  opens  with  the  coup  d'etat  of  the 
Empress  Dowager,  and  terminates  with  the  capture 
of  Peking  by  the  combined  forces  of  the  civilised 
world. 

Instead  of  attempting,  even  in  outline,  a  narrative 
of  events,  it  will  be  more  useful  to  direct  attention  to 
the  springs  of  action.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  Emperor  is  the  adopted  son  of  the  Dowager 
Empress.  After  the  death  of  her  own  son,  Tung-chi, 
who  occupied  the  throne  for  eleven  years  under  a 
joint  regency  of  two  empresses,  his  mother  cast  about 
for  some  one  to  adopt  in  his  stead.  With  motives 
not  difficult  to  divine  she  chose  among  her  nephews 
an  infant  of  three  summers,  and  gave  him  the  title 
Kwangsu,  "Illustrious  Successor."  When  he  was 
old  enough  to  be  entrusted  with  the  reins  of  govern- 
ment, she  made  a  feint  of  laying  down  her  power,  in 
deference  to  custom.  Yet  she  exacted  of  the  imperial 
youth  that  he  visit  her  at  her  country  palace  and  throw 
himself  at  her  feet  once  in  five  days — proof  enough 
that   she   kept  her  hand  on  the  helm,   though   she 


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THE  BOXER  WAR  173 

mitted  her  nephew  to  pose  as  steersman.  She  her- 
self was  noted  for  progressive  ideas;  and  it  was  not 
strange  that  the  young  man,  under  the  influence  of 
Kang  Yuwei,  backed  by  enUghtened  viceroys,  should 
go  beyond  his  adoptive  mother.  Within  three  years 
from  the  close  of  the  war  he  had  proclaimed  a  succes- 
sion of  new  measures  which  amounted  to  a  reversal 
of  the  old  policy;  nor  is  it  likely  that  she  disapproved 
of  any  of  them,  until  the  six  ministers  of  the  Board  of 
Rites,  the  guardians  of  a  sort  of  Levitical  law,  be- 
sought her  to  save  the  empire  from  the  horrors  of  a 
revolution. 

For  her  to  command  was  to  be  obeyed.  The  viceroys 
were  her  appointees;  and  she  knew  they  would  stand 
by  her  to  a  man.  The  Emperor,  though  nominally 
independent,  was  not  emancipated  from  the  obliga- 
tions of  filial  duty,  which  were  the  more  binding  as 
having  been  created  by  her  voluntary  choice.  There 
was  no  likelihood  that  he  would  offer  serious  resistance; 
and  it  was  certain  that  he  would  not  be  supported 
if  he  did.  Coming  from  behind  the  veil,  she  snatched 
the  sceptre  from  his  inexperienced  hand,  as  a  mother 
takes  a  deadly  weapon  from  a  half-grown  boy.  Sub- 
mitting to  the  inevitable  he  made  a  formal  surrender 
of  his  autocratic  powers  and,  confessing  his  errors, 
implored  her  "to  teach  him  how  to  govern."  This 
was  in  September,  1898. 

Stripped  of  every  vestige  of  authority,  the  unhappy 
prince  was  confined,  a  prisoner  of  state,  in  a  secluded 
palace  where  it  was  thought  he  would  soon  receive  the 
present  of  a  silken  scarf  as  a  hint  to  make  way  for  a 
worthier  successor.     That  his  life  was  spared  was  no 


174  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

doubt  due  to  a  certain  respect  for  the  public  sentiment 
of  the  world,  to  which  China  is  not  altogether  insensible. 
He  having  no  direct  heir,  the  son  of  Prince  Tuan  was 
adopted  by  the  Dowager  as  heir-apparent,  evidently 
in  expectation  of  a  vacancy  soon  to  be  filled.  Prince 
Tuan,  hitherto  unknown  in  the  politics  of  the  state, 
became,  from  that  moment,  the  leader  of  a  reactionary 
party.  Believing  that  his  son  would  soon  be  called 
to  the  throne  by  the  demise  of  the  Emperor,  he  put 
on  all  the  airs  of  a  Tai-shang  Hwang,  or  "Father  of 
an  Emperor." 

Here  again  the  patria  potestas  comes  in  as  a  factor; 
and  in  the  brief  career  of  the  father  of  the  heir- 
apparent,  it  shows  itself  in  its  most  exaggerated  form. 
Under  the  influence  of  the  reactionary  clique,  of  which 
he  was  acknowledged  chief,  the  Empress  Dowager  in 
her  new  regency  was  induced  to  repeal  almost  every- 
thing the  Emperor  had  done  in  the  way  of  reform. 
In  her  edict  she  said  cynically:  "It  does  not  follow 
that  we  are  to  stop  eating,  because  we  have  been 
choked!"  Dislike  to  foreign  methods  engendered 
an  ill-concealed  hatred  of  foreigners;  and  just  at 
this  epoch  occurred  a  series  of  aggressions  by  foreign 
powers,  which  had  the  effect  of  fanning  that  hatred 
into  a  flame. 

In  the  fall  of  1897  Germany  demanded  the  cession 
of  Kiao-Chao,  calling  it  a  lease  for  99  years.  The 
next  spring  Russia  under  the  form  of  a  lease  for  25 
years  obtained  Port  Arthur  for  the  terminus  of  her 
long  railway.  England  and  France  followed  suit: 
one  taking  a  lease  of  Wei-hai-wei;  the  other,  of  Kwang- 
chou-wan.     Though  in  every  case  the  word  "lease" 


THE  BOXER  WAR  175 

was  employed,  the  Chinese  knew  the  transfer  meant 
permanent  ahenation. 

A  hue  and  cry  was  raised  against  what  they  described 
as  the  "sHcing  of  the  melon,"  and  in  Shantung,  where 
the  first  act  of  spoliation  had  taken  place,  the  Boxers, 
a  turbulent  society  of  long  standing,  were  encouraged 
to  wage  open  war  against  native  Christians,  foreigners 
and  foreign  products,  including  railways,  telegraphs, 
and  all  sorts  of  merchandise. 

Not  until  those  predatory  bands  had  entered  the 
metropolitan  province,  with  the  avowed  object  of 
pushing  their  way  to  Peking*  did  the  legations  take 
steps  to  strengthen  their  guards.  A  small  reinforce- 
ment of  207  men  luckily  reached  Peking  a  few  days 
before  the  railway  w^s  wrecked. 

With  a  view  to  protect  the  foreign  settlement  at 
Tientsin,  then  threatened  by  Boxers,  the  combined 
naval  forces  stormed  the  forts  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river,  and  advanced  to  that  rich  emporium.  The 
Court  denounced  this  as  an  act  of  war,  and  ordered 
all  foreigners  to  leave  the  capital  within  twenty-four 
hours.  That  meant  slaughter  at  the  hands  of  the 
Boxers.       The    foreign     ministers     protested,      and 


*  On  March  30,  1900,  the  following  Boxer  manifesto  in  jingling  rhyme, 
was  thrown  into  the  London  Mission,  at  Tientsin.  It  is  here  given  in 
a  prose  version,  taken  from  "A  Flight  for  Life,"  by  the  Rev.  J.  H.  Roberts, 
Pilgrim  Press,  Boston. 

"We  Boxers  have  come  to  Tientsin  to  kill  all  foreign  devils,  and  pro- 
tect the  Manchu  dynasty.  Above,  there  is  the  Empress  Dowager  on  our 
side,  and  below  there  is  Junglu.  The  soldiers  of  Yulu  and  Yuhien  [gover- 
ernors  of  Shantung  and  Chihli]  are  all  our  men.  When  we  have  finished 
killing  in  Tientsin,  we  shall  go  to  Peking.  All  the  officials  high  and  low 
will  welcome  us.     Whoever  is  afraid  let  him  quickly  escape  for  his  life." 


176  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

endeavoured  by  prolonged  negotiation  to  avoid  com- 
pliance with  the  cruel  order. 

On  June  20,  the  German  minister,  Baron  von  Ketteler, 
was  on  his  way  to  the  Foreign  Office  to  obtain  an 
extension  of  time,  when  he  was  shot  dead  in  the  street 
by  a  man  in  the  uniform  of  a  soldier.  His  secretary, 
though  wounded,  gave  the  alarm;  and  all  the  legations, 
with  all  their  respective  countrymen,  took  refuge  in 
the  British  Legation,  with  the  exception  of  Bishop 
Favier  and  his  people  who,  with  the  aid  of  forty  marines, 
bravely  defended   themselves  in   the  new  cathedral. 

In  the  evening  we  were  fired  on  by  the  Government 
troops,  and  from  that  time  we  were  closely  besieged 
and  exposed  to  murderous  attacks  day  and  night  for 
eight  weeks,  when  a  combined  force  under  the  flags 
of  eight  nations  carried  the  walls  by  storm,  just  in 
time  to  prevent  such  a  massacre  as  the  world  has  never 
seen.  Massacres  on  a  larger  scale  have  not  been  a 
rare  spectacle;  but  never  before  in  the  history  of  the 
world  had  any  government  been  seen  attempting  to 
destroy  an  entire  diplomatic  body,  every  member  of 
whom  is  made  sacred  by  the  law  of  nations.* 

*.AN    APPEAL  FROM  THE  LION'S  DEN 
(Written  four  weeks  before  the  end  of  the  siege,  this  appeal  failed  to 
reach  the  outside  world.     It  is  now  printed  for  the  first  time.     Nothing 
that  I  could  now  write  would  show  the  situation  with  half  such  vividness. 
It  reveals  the  scene  as  with  a  lightning  flash.) 

"  British  Legation,  July  i6,  1900. 
"to  the  christian  world 

''On  the  19th  ult.  the  Chinese  declared  war  on  account  of  the  attack 
on  the  forts  at  Taku.  Since  then  we  have  been  shut  up  in  the  British 
Legation  and  others  adjacent,  and  bombarded  day  and  night  with  shot 
and  shell  The  defence  has  been  magnificent.  About  1,000  foreigners 
(of  both  sexes)  have  held  their  ground  against  the  forces  of  the  Empire. 
Some  thousands  of  Chinese  converts  are  dependent  on  us  for  protection. 


-^pr^.. 


^- 


i!l       1.-^  ■• 


-:<.ipipi!i^  • 


.i»i 


^  : 


THE  BOXER  WAR  177 

On  August  14  Gen.  Gaseles  and  his  contingent 
entered  the  British  Legation.  The  Court,  conscious 
of  guilt,  fled  to  the  northwest,  leaving  the  city  once 
more  at  the  mercy  of  the  hated  foreigner;  and  so  the 
curtain  falls  on  the  closing  scene. 

What  feats  of  heroism  were  performed  in  the  course 
of  those  eventful  weeks;  how  delicate  women  rose 
to  the  height  of  the  occasion  in  patient  endurance 
and  helpful  charity;  how  international  jealousies  were 
merged  in  the  one  feeling  of  devotion  to  the  common 
good — all  this  and  more  I  should  like  to  relate  for 
the  honour  of  human  nature. 

How  an  unseen  power  appeared  to  hold  our  enemies 
in  check  and  to  sustain  the  courage  of  the  besieged, 
I  would  also  like  to  place  on  record,  to  the  glory  of  the 
Most  High;  but  space  fails  for  dealing  with  anything 
but  general  principles. f 

On  the  day  following  our  rescue,  at  a  thanksgiving 
meeting,    which    was    largely    attended,    Dr.    Arthur 

The  City  Wall  near  the  legations  is  held  by  otir  men,  but  the  Chinese  are 
forcing  them  back  and  driving  in  ovir  outposts.  The  mortality  in  our 
ranks  is  very  great ;  and  unless  relief  comes  soon  we  must  all  perish.  Our 
men  have  fought  bravely,  and  our  women  have  shown  sublime  cotirage. 
May  this  terrible  sacrifice  prove  not  to  be  in  vain!  We  are  the  victims 
of  pagan  fanaticism.  Let  this  pagan  empire  be  partitioned  among 
Christian  powers,  and  may  a  new  order  of  things  open  on  China  with  a 
new  century! 

"The  chief  asylum  for  native  Christians  is  the  Roman  Catholic  Cathe- 
dral, where  Bishop  Favier  aided  by  forty  marines  gives  protection  to  four 
or  five  thousand.  The  perils  of  the  siege  have  obliterated  the  lines  of 
creed  and  nation,  making  a  unity,  not  merely  of  Christians,  but  bringing 
the  Japanese  into  brotherhood  with  us.  To  them  the  siege  is  a  step  to- 
ward Christianity." 

"(Signed)  Dr.  W.  A.  P.  Martin." 

t  See  the  author's  "The  Siege  in  Peking."  New  York:  Fleming  H. 
Revell  Company. 


178  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

Smith  pointed  out  ten  instances — most  of  us  agreed 
that  he  might  have  made  the  number  ten  times  ten 
— in  which  the  providence  of  God  had  intervened  on 
our  behalf. 

It  was  a  rule  of  an  ancient  critic  that  a  god  should 
not  be  brought  on  the  stage  unless  the  occasion  were 
such  as  to  require  the  presence  of  a  more  than  human 
power.  Nee  deus  intersit  nisi  dignus  vindiee  nodus. 
How  many  such  occasions  we  have  had  to  notice  in 
the  course  of  this  narrative!  What  a  theodicaea  we 
have  in  the  result  of  all  this  tribulation!  We  see  at 
last,  a  government  convinced  of  the  folly  of  a  policy 
which  brought  on  such  a  succession  of  disastrous 
wars.  We  see  missionaries  and  native  Christians 
fairly  well  protected  throughout  the  whole  extent  of 
the  Empire.  We  see,  moreover,  a  national  move- 
ment in  the  direction  of  educational  reform,  which, 
along  with  the  Gospel  of  Christ,  promises  to  impart 
new  life  to  that  ancient  people. 

The  following  incident  may  serve  to  show  the  state 
of  uncertainty  in  which  we  lived  during  the  interregnum 
preceding  the  return  of  the  Court. 

While  waiting  for  an  opportunity  to  get  my  "train 
(the  university)  on  the  track,"  I  spent  the  summer  of 
1 90 1  at  Pearl  Grotto,  my  usual  retreat,  on  the  top  of 
a  hill  over  a  thousand  feet  high,  overlooking  the  capital. 
''The  Boxers  are  coming!"  cried  my  writer  and  ser- 
vants one  evening  about  twilight.  "Haste — hide  in 
the  rocks — they  will  soon  be  on  us!"  "I  shall  not 
hide,"  I  replied;  and  seizing  my  rifle  I  rested  it  on  a 
wall  which  commanded  the  approach.  They  soon 
became  visible  at  the  distance  of  a  hundred  yards. 


POSTSCRIPT  179 

waving  flambeaux,  and  yelling  like  a  troop  or  devils. 
Happily  I  reserved  my  fire  for  closer  range;  for  leaving 
the  path  at  that  point  they  betook  themselves  to  the 
top  of  another  hill  where  they  waved  their  torches 
and  shouted  like  madmen.  We  were  safe  for  the  night; 
and  in  the  morning  I  reported  the  occurrence  to  Mr. 
O'Conor,  the  British  charge  d'affaires,  who  was  at 
a  large  temple  at  the  foot  of  the  hills.  "They  were  not 
Boxers,"  he  remarked,  "but  a  party  we  sent  out  to 
look  for  a  lost  student." 

POSTSCRIPT 

It  is  the  fashion  to  speak  slightingly  of  the  Boxer 
troubles,  and  to  blink  the  fact  that  the  movement 
which  led  to  the  second  capture  of  Peking  and  the 
flight  of  the  Court  was  a  serious  war.  The  southern 
viceroys  had  undertaken  to  maintain  order  in  the 
south.  Operations  were  therefore  localised  somewhat, 
as  they  were  in  the  Russo-Japanese  War,  It  is  even 
said  that  the  combined  forces  were  under  the  impres- 
sion that  they  were  coming  to  the  rescue  of  a  helpless 
government  which  was  doing  all  in  its  power  to  pro- 
tect foreigners.  Whether  this  was  the  effect  of  diplo- 
matic dust  thrown  in  their  eyes  or  not,  it  was  a  fiction. 

How  bitterly  the  Empress  Dowager  was  bent  on 
exterminating  the  foreigner,  may  be  inferred  from 
her  decree  ordering  the  massacre  of  foreigners  and 
their  adherents — a  savage  edict  which  the  southern 
satraps  refused  to  obey.  A  similar  inference  may 
be  drawn  from  the  summary  execution  of  four  ministers 
of  state  for  remonstrating  against  throwing  in  the 
fortunes  of  the  empire  with  the  Boxer  party.     China 


i8o  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

should  be  made  to  do  penance  on  her  knees  for  those 
shocking  displays  of  barbarism.  At  Taiyuan-fu,  forty- 
five  missionaries  were  murdered  by  the  governor,  and 
sixteen  at  Paoting-fu.  Such  atrocities  are  only  possible 
among  a  half-civilised  people. 


I 


CHAPTER  XXVIIl 

THE  RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR 

Russia's  Schemes  for  Conquest — Conflicting  Interests  in 
Korea — Hostilities  Begin — The  First  Battles — The 
Blockade — Dispersion  of  the  Russian  Fleet — Battle  of 
Liao-yang — Fall  of  Port  Arthur — Battle  of  Mukden 
— The  Armada — Battle  of  Tsushima — The  Peace 
of  Portsmouth — The  Effect  on  China 

TO  THE  Chinese  the  retrospect  of  these  five  wars 
left  little  room  for  those  pompous  pretensions 
which  appeared  to  be  their  vital  breath. 

Beaten  by  Western  powers  and  by  the  new  power 
of  the  East,  their  capital  taken  a  second  time  after 
forty  years'  opportunity  to  fortify  it,  and  their  fugitive 
court  recalled  a  second  time  to  reign  on  sufferance  or 
during  good  behaviour,  what  had  they  left  to  boast 
of  except  the  antiquity  of  their  country  and  the  number 
of  their  people?  Dazed  and  paralysed,  most  of  them 
gave  way  to  a  sullen  resignation  that  differed  little 
from  despair. 

There  were,  indeed,  a  few  who,  before  things  came 
to  the  worst,  saw  that  China's  misfortunes  were  due 
to  folly,  not  fate.  Ignorant  conservatism  had  made 
her  weak;  vigorous  reform  might  make  her  strong. 
But  another  war  was  required  to  turn  the  feeling  of 
the  few  into  a  conviction  of  the  many.  This  change  was 

i8i 


1 82  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

accomplished  by  a  war  waged  within  their  borders  but 
to  which  they  were  not  a  party — a  war  which  was  not 
an  act  in  their  national  drama,  but  a  spectacle  for 
which  they  furnished  the  stage.  That  spectacle  calls 
for  notice  in  the  present  work  on  account  of  its  in- 
fluence on  the  destinies  of  China. 

For  the  springs  of  action  it  will  be  necessary  to  go 
back  three  centuries,  to  the  time  when  Yermak  crossed 
the  Ural  Mountains  and  made  Russia  an  Asiatic  power. 
The  conquest  of  Siberia  was  not  to  end  in  Siberia. 
Russia  saw  in  it  a  chance  to  enrich  herself  at  the  ex- 
pense of  weaker  neighbours.  What  but  that  motive 
led  her,  in  1858,  to  demand  the  Manchurian  seacoast 
as  the  price  of  neutrality?  What  but  that  led  her  to 
construct  the  longest  railway  in  the  world?  What 
but  that  impelled  her  to  seek  for  it  a  second  terminus 
on  the  Gulf  of  Pechili? 

The  occupation  of  Port  Arthur  and  Liao-tung  by 
the  Japanese,  in  1895,  was  a  checkmate  to  Russia's 
little  game;  and,  supported  by  France  and  Germany, 
she  gave  her  notice  to  quit.  During  the  Boxer  War 
of  1900,  Russia  increased  her  forces  in  Manchuria  to  pro- 
vide for  the  eventualities  of  a  probable  break-up,  and 
after  the  peace  her  delay  in  fulfilling  her  promise  of 
evacuation  was  tantamount  to  a  refusal. 

Had  the  Russians  confined  their  attention  to  Man- 
churia they  might  have  continued  to  remain  in  pos- 
session; but  another  feeble  state  offered  itself  as 
a  tempting  prize.  They  set  greedy  eyes  on  Korea, 
made  interest  with  an  impoverished  court,  and  ob- 
tained the  privilege  of  navigating  the  Yalu  and  cutting 


THE  RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR  183 

timber  on  its  banks.  This  proceeding,  though  ex- 
plained by  the  requirements  of  railway  construction, 
aroused  the  suspicion  and  jealousy  of  the  Japanese. 
They  knew  it  meant  more  than  seeking  an  outlet 
for  a  lumber  industry.  They  knew  it  portended 
vassalage  for  Korea  and  ejection  for  themselves. 
Had  they  not  made  war  on  China  ten  years  before 
because  they  could  brook  no  rival  in  the  peninsula? 
How  could  they  tolerate  the  intrusion  of  Russia? 
Not  merely  were  their  interests  in  Korea  at  stake; 
every  advance  of  Russia  in  that  quarter,  with  Korea 
for  vassal  or  ally,  was  a  menace  to  the  existence  of 
Japan. 

The  Japanese  lost  no  time  in  entering  a  protest. 
Russia  resorted  to  the  Fabian  policy  of  delay  as 
before;  but  she  was  dealing  with  a  people  whose  pride 
and  patriotism  were  not  to  be  trifled  with.  After 
protracted  negotiations  Japan  sent  an  ultimatum  in 
which  she  proposed  to  recognise  Manchuria  as  Russia's 
sphere  of  influence,  provided  Russia  would  recognise 
Japanese  influence  as  paramount  in  Korea.  For  a 
fortnight  or  more  the  Czar  vouchsafed  no  reply. 
Accustomed  to  being  waited  on,  he  put  the  paper  in 
his  pocket  and  kept  it  there  while  every  train  on  the 
railway  was  pouring  fresh  troops  into  Manchuria. 
Without  waiting  for  a  formal  reply,  or  deigning  to 
discuss  modifications  intended  to  gain  time,  the  Japa- 
nese heard  the  hour  strike  and  cleared  for  action. 

They  are  reproached  for  opening  hostilities  with- 
out first  formally  declaring  war.  In  the  age  of  chivalry 
a  declaration  of  war  was  a  solemn  ceremony.  A 
herald   standing  on  the  border  read   or  recited  his 


1 84  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

master's  complaint  and  then  hurled  a  spear  across 
the  boundary  as  an  act  of  defiance.  In  later  times 
nothing  more  than  a  formal  announcement  is  re- 
quired, except  for  the  information  of  neutrals  and 
the  belligerents'  own  people.  The  rupture  of  relations 
leaves  both  parties  free  to  choose  their  line  of  action. 
Japan,  the  newest  of  nations,  naturally  adopted  the 
most  modern  method. 

Recalling  her  ambassador  on  February  6,  1904, 
Japan  was  ready  to  strike  simultaneous  blows  at  two 
points.  On  February  8,  Admiral  Uriu  challenged 
two  Russian  cruisers  at  Chemulpo  to  come  out  and 
fight,  otherwise  he  would  attack  them  in  the  harbour. 
Steaming  out  they  fired  the  first  shots  of  the  war, 
and  both  were  captured  or  destroyed.  A  little  later 
on  the  same  day  Admiral  Togo  opened  his  broadsides 
on  the  Russian  fleet  at  Port  Arthur,  and  resumed 
the  attack  the  following  morning.  Without  challenge 
or  notification  of  any  kind,  his  attack  had  the  effect 
of  a  genuine  surprise.  The  Russians,  whether  from 
confidence  in  their  position  or  contempt  for  their 
enemy,  were  unprepared  and  replied  feebly.  They 
had  seven  battleships  to  Togo's  six,  but  the  big  ships 
of  Japan  were  supported  by  a  flotilla  of  torpedo-boats 
which  outnumbered  those  of  Russia.  These  alert 
little  craft  did  great  execution.  Creeping  into  the 
harbour  while  the  bombardment  kept  the  enemy 
occupied  they  sank  two  battleships  and  one  armoured 
cruiser.  Other  Russian  vessels  were  badly  damaged; 
but,  according  to  Togo's  report,  on  the  side  of  Japan 
not  one  vessel  was  incapacitated  for  actual  service. 

Land  forces,   fully  equipped  and  waiting  for  this 


THE  RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR  185 

special  service,  commenced  operations  without  delay 
and  began  to  cut  off  communication  from  the  land 
side  while  Togo's  squadron  corked  up  every  inlet  from 
the  sea.  Alexieff,  whose  title  of  viceroy  revealed 
the  intentions  of  Russia  in  regard  to  Manchuria, 
taking  alarm  at  the  prospect  of  a  siege,  escaped  to 
Harbin  near  the  Siberian  frontier — a  safer  place  for 
headquarters.  To  screen  his  flight  he  made  un- 
warrantable use  of  an  ambulance  train  of  the  Red 
Cross  Society.  Disagreeing  with  General  Kuropatkin 
as  to  the  plan  of  campaign,  he  resigned  the  command 
of  the  army  in  April,  and  Kuropatkin  was  promoted 
to  the  vacant  place.  Beaten  in  several  engagements 
on  the  Liao-tung  peninsula,  the  Russians  began  to 
fall  back,  followed  by  the  Japanese  under  Field-Marshal 
Oyama;  and  the  siege  of  the  fortress  was  prosecuted 
with  unremitting  vigour. 

By  July  the  Japanese  had  secured  possession  of 
the  outer  line  of  forts,  and,  planting  heavy  guns  on 
the  top  of  a  high  hill,  they  were  able  to  throw  plunging 
shot  into  the  bosom  of  the  harbour.  No  longer  safe 
at  their  inner  anchorage,  the  Russian  naval  officers 
resolved  to  attempt  to  reach  Vladivostok,  where  the 
combined  squadrons  might  assume  the  offensive  or  at 
least  be  secure  from  blockade.  Scarcely  had  they 
gained  the  open  sea  when  (on  August  10)  the  Japanese 
fell  on  them  like  a  whirlwind  and  scattered  their  ships 
in  all  directions.  A  few  reentered  the  harbour  to  await 
their  doom;  two  or  three  found  their  way  to  Vladi- 
vostok; two  sought  refuge  at  the  German  port  of 
Tsing-tao ;  two  put  into  Shanghai ;  and  one  continued 
its  flight  as  far  south  as  Saigon. 


i86  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

One  gunboat  sought  shelter  at  Chefoo,  where  I  was 
passing  my  summer  vacation.  The  Japanese,  in 
hot  pursuit,  showed  no  more  respect  to  the  neutrality 
of  China  than  they  had  shown  to  Korea.  Boarding 
the  fugitive  vessel,  they  summoned  the  captain  to 
surrender.  He  replied  by  seizing  the  Japanese  officer 
in  his  arms  and  throwing  himself  into  the  sea.  They 
were  rescued ;  and  the  Japanese  then  carried  off  the 
boat  under  the  guns  of  a  Chinese  admiral.  Of  this 
incident  in  its  main  features  I  was  an  eye-witness. 
I  may  add  that  we  were  near  enough  to  bear  witness 
to  the  fact  of  the  siege;  for,  in  the  words  of  Helen 
Sterling : 

"  We  heard  the  boom  of  guns  by  day 
And  saw  their  flash  by  night, 
And  almost  thought,  tho'  miles  away, 
That  we  were  in  the  fight." 

The  Chinese  admiral,  feeling  the  affront  to  the 
Dragon  flag  and  fearing  that  he  would  be  called  to 
account,  promptly  tendered  his  resignation.  He  was 
told  to  keep  his  place;  and,  by  way  of  consoling  him 
for  his  inaction,  the  Minister  of  Marine  added,  "You 
are  not  to  blame  for  not  firing  on  the  Japanese.  They 
are  fighting  our  battles — we  can't  do  anything  against 
them."  So  much  for  Chinese  neutrality  in  theory 
and  in  practice. 

Kuropatkin,  like  the  Parthian,  "most  dreaded  when 
in  flight,"  renouncing  any  further  attempt  to  break 
through  the  cordon  which  the  Japanese  had  drawn 
around  the  doomed  fortress,  intrenched  his  forces  in 
and  around  Liaoyang.     His  position  was  strong  by 


THE  RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR  187 

nature,  and  he  strengthened  it  by  every  device  known 
to  a  military  engineer;  yet  he  was  driven  from  it  in  a 
battle  which  lasted  nine  days. 

The  Japanese,  though  not  slow  to  close  around  his 
outposts,  were  too  cautious  to  deliver  their  main  attack 
until  they  could  be  certain  of  success.  The  combat 
thickened  till,  on  August  24,  cannon  thundered  along 
a  line  of  forty  miles.  Outflanked  by  his  assailants, 
the  Russian  general,  perceiving  that  he  must  secure 
his  communications  on  the  north  or  sustain  a  siege, 
abandoned  his  ground  and  fell  back  on  Mukden. 

In  this,  the  greatest  battle  of  the  campaign  thus 
far,  400,000  men  were  engaged,  the  Japanese,  as  usual, 
having  a  considerable  majority.  The  loss  of  life  was 
appalling.  The  Russian  losses  were  reported  at 
22,000;  and  those  of  Japan  could  not  have  been  less. 
Yet  Liaoyang  with  all  its  horrors  was  only  a  prelude 
to  a  more  obstinate  conflict  on  a  more  extended  arena. 

Without  hope  of  succour  by  land,  and  without  a 
fleet  to  bring  relief  by  sea,  the  Russians  defended 
their  fortress  with  the  courage  of  despair.  Ten  years 
before  this  date  the  Japanese  under  Field-marshal 
Oyama  had  carried  this  same  stronghold  almost  by 
assault.  Taking  it  in  the  rear,  a  move  which  the  Chinese 
thought  so  contrary  to  the  rules  of  war  that  they  had 
neglected  their  landward  defences,  they  were  masters  of 
the  place  on  the  morning  of  the  third  day. 

How  different  their  reception  on  the  present  occa- 
sion! How  changed  the  aspect!  The  hills,  range  after 
range,  were  now  crowned  with  forts.  Fifty  thousand  of 
Russia's  best  soldiers  were  behind  those  batteries, 
many  of  which  were  provided  with  casemates  impene- 


1 88  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

trable  to  any  ordinary  projectile.  General  Stoessel, 
a  man  of  science,  courage  and  experience,  was  in 
command;  and  he  held  General  Nogi  with  a  force  of 
sixty  or  seventy  thousand  at  bay  for  eleven  months. 
Prodigies  of  valour  were  performed  on  both  sides, 
some  of  the  more  commanding  positions  being  taken 
and  retaken  three  or  four  times. 

When,  in  September,  the  besiegers  got  possession 
of  Wolf  Hill,  and  with  plunging  shot  smashed  the 
remnant  of  the  fleet,  they  offered  generous  terms  to 
the  defenders.  General  Stoessel  declined  the  offer, 
resolving  to  emulate  Thermopylae,  or  believing,  perhaps, 
in  the  possibility  of  rescue.  When,  however,  he  saw 
the  "203  Metre  Hill"  in  their  hands  and  knew  his  case- 
mates would  soon  be  riddled  by  heavy  shot,  in  sheer 
despair  he  was  forced  to  capitulate.  This  was  on  the 
first  day  of  the  new  year  (1905).  His  force  had  been 
reduced  to  half  its  original  numbers,  and  of  these  no 
fewer  than  14,000  were  in  hospital. 

General  Stoessel  has  been  censured  for  not  holding 
out  until  the  arrival  of  the  armada;  but  what  could 
the  armada  have  done  had  it  appeared  in  the  offing? 
It  certainly  could  not  have  penetrated  the  harbour, 
for  in  addition  to  fixed  or  floating  mines  it  would  have 
had  to  run  the  gauntlet  of  Togo's  fleet  and  its  doom 
would  have  been  precipitated.  One  critic  of  distinction 
denounced  Stoessel's  surrender  as  "shameful";  but  is 
it  not  a  complete  vindication  that  his  enemies  applaud 
his  gallant  defence,  and  that  his  own  government  was 
satisfied  that  he  had  done  his  duty.* 

*  Since  writing  this  I  have  read  the  finding  of  the  court-martial.  It 
has  the  air  of  an  attempt  to  diminish  the  national  disgrace  by  throwing 
blame  on  a  brave  commander. 


THE  RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR  189 

The  Russian  commander  had  marked  out  a  new 
camp  at  Mukden,  the  chief  city  of  the  province  and 
the  cradle  of  the  Manchu  dynasty.  There  he  was  * 
allowed  once  more  to  intrench  himself.  Was  this 
because  the  Japanese  were  confident  of  their  ability 
to  compel  him  again  to  retire,  or  were  they  occupied 
with  the  task  of  filling  up  their  depleted  ranks?  If 
the  latter  was  the  cause,  the  Russians  were  doing  the 
same;  but  near  to  their  base  and  with  full  command 
of  the  sea,  the  Japanese  were  able  to  do  it  more  ex- 
peditiously than  their  enemy.  Yet  with  all  their 
facilities  they  were  not  ready  to  move  on  his  works 
until  winter  imposed  a  suspension  of  hostilities. 

On  October  2  Kuropatkin  published  a  boastful  mani- 
festo expressing  confidence  in  the  issue  of  the  coming 
conflict — trusting  no  doubt  to  the  help  of  the  three 
generals,  December,  January,  and  February.  Five 
months  later,  on  March  8,  1905,  he  sent  two  telegrams 
to  the  Czar:  the  first  said  "I  am  surrounded;"  the 
second,  a  few  hours  later,  conveyed  the  comforting 
intelligence  "the  army  has  escaped." 

The  Japanese,  not  choosing  to  encounter  the  rigours 
of  a  Manchurian  winter,  waited  till  the  advent  of  spring. 
The  air  was  mild  and  the  streams  spanned  by  bridges 
of  ice.  The  manoeuvres  need  not  be  described  here  in 
detail.  After  more  than  ten  days  of  continuous  fighting 
on  a  line  of  battle  nearly  two  hundred  miles  long, 
with  scarcely  less  than  a  million  of  men  engaged  (Jap- 
anese in  majority  as  before),  the  great  Russian  strate- 
gist broke  camp  and  retired  in  good  order.  His  army 
had  escaped,  but  it  had  lost  in  killed  and  wounded 
150,000.     The  losses  of  Japan  amounted  to  50,000. 


I  go  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

The  greatest  battle  of  this  latest  war,  the  Battle 
of  Mukden  was  in  some  respects  the  greatest  in  modem 
history.  In  length  of  line,  in  numbers  engaged,  and 
in  the  resulting  casualties  its  figures  are  double  those 
of  Waterloo.  Once  more  by  masterly  strategy  a 
rout  was  converted  into  a  retreat;  and  the  Russian 
army  withdrew  to  the  northwest. 

Weary  of  crawfish  tactics  the  Czar  appointed  General 
Lineivitch  to  the  chief  command;  and  the  ablest  of 
the  Russian  generals  was  relieved  of  the  duty  of  con- 
triving ways  of  "escape."  To  cover  the  rear  of  a 
defeated  force  is  always  reckoned  a  post  of  honour; 
but  it  is  not  the  sort  of  distinction  that  satisfies  the 
ambition  of  a  great  commander. 

By  dint  of  efforts  and  sacrifices  an  enormous  fleet 
was  assembled  for  the  relief  of  Port  Arthur.  It  sailed 
from  Cronstadt  on  August  ii,  1905,  leaving  the  Baltic 
seaports  unprotected  save  by  the  benevolent  neutrality 
of  the  German  Kaiser,  who  granted  passage  through 
his  ship  canal,  although  he  knew  the  fleet  was  going 
to  wage  war  on  one  of  his  friends. 

Part  of  the  fleet  proceeded  via  Suez,  and  part  went 
round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope — to  them  a  name  of 
mockery.  The  ships  moved  leisurely,  their  comman- 
ders not  doubting  that  Stoessel  would  be  able  to  hold 
his  ground;  but  scarcely  had  they  reached  a  rendezvous 
which,  by  the  favour  of  France,  they  had  fixed  in 
the  waters  adjacent  to  Madagascar,  when  they  heard 
of  the  fall  of  Port  Arthur.  Of  the  annihilation  of  the 
fleet  attached  to  the  fortress,  and  of  the  destruction  of  a 
squadron  coming  to  the  rescue  from  the  north  they 
had  previously  learned.     With  what  dismay  did  they 


THE  RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR  191 

now  hear  that  the  key  of  the  ocean  was  lost.  Almost 
at  the  same  moment  the  last  of  Job's  messengers 
arrived  with  the  heavier  tidings  that  Mukden,  the  key 
of  the  province,  had  been  abandoned  by  a  defeated 
army — stunning  intelligence  for  a  forlorn  hope!  Should 
they  turn  back  or  push  ahead?  Anxious  question 
this  for  Admiral  Rozhesvenski  and  his  officers.  Too 
late  for  Port  Arthur,  might  they  not  reenforce  Vladi- 
vostok and  save  it  from  a  like  fate?  The  signal  to 
"steam  ahead"  was  displayed  on  the  flagship. 

Slowly  and  painfully,  its  propellers  clogged  by 
seavv^eed,  its  keels  overgrown  with  barnacles,  the 
grand  armada  crossed  the  Indian  Ocean  and  headed 
northward  for  the  China  Sea.  On  May  27,  steering 
for  the  Korean  channel,  it  fell  into  a  snare  which  a 
blind  man  ought  to  have  been  able  to  foresee.  Togo's 
fleet  had  the  freedom  of  the  seas.  Where  could  it  be, 
if  not  in  that  very  channel?  Yet  on  the  Russians 
went: 

"Unmindful  of  the  whirlwind's  sway- 
That  hushed  in  grim  repose 
Expects  his  evening  prey." 

The  struggle  was  short  and  decisive — finished,  it 
is  said,  in  less  than  one  hour.  While  Togo's  battle- 
ships, fresh  and  in  good  condition,  poured  shot  and 
shell  into  the  wayworn  strangers,  his  torpedo-boats, 
greatly  increased  in  number,  glided  almost  unobservedly 
among  the  enemy  and  launched  their  thunderbolts 
with  fatal  effect.  Battleships  and  cruisers  went  down 
with  all  on  board.  The  Russian  flagship  was  dis- 
abled, and  the  admiral,  severely  wounded,  was  trans- 


192  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

ferred  to  the  hold  of  a  destroyer.  Without  signals 
from  their  commander  the  vessels  of  the  whole  fleet 
fought  or  fled  or  perished  separately;  of  18,000  men, 
1,000  escaped  and  3,000  were  made  prisoners.  What 
of  the  other  14,000? 

"Ask  of  the  winds  that  far  around 
With  fragments  strewed  the  sea." 

The  much  vaunted  armada  was  a  thing  of  the  past; 
and  Tsushima  or,  as  Togo  officially  named  it,  the 
Battle  of  the  Sea  of  Japan,  has  taken  its  place  along 
with  Trafalgar  and  Salamis. 

Tired  of  a  spectacle  that  had  grown  somewhat 
monotonous,  the  world  was  clamorous  for  peace. 
The  belligerents,  hitherto  deaf  to  every  suggestion  of 
the  kind,  now  accepted  an  invitation  from  President 
Roosevelt  and  appointed  commissioners  to  arrange 
the  terms  of  a  treaty.  They  met  in  August,  1905,  at 
Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire,  and  after  a  good  deal 
of  diplomatic  fencing  the  sword  was  sheathed.  In 
the  treaty,  since  ratified,  Russia  acknowledges  Japan's 
exceptional  position  in  Korea,  transfers  to  Japan 
her  rights  in  Port  Arthur  and  Liao-tung,  and  hands 
over  to  Japan  her  railways  in  Manchuria.  Both 
parties  agree  to  evacuate  Manchuria  within  eighteen 
months. 

Japan  was  obliged  to  waive  her  claim  to  a  war  in- 
demnity and  to  allow  Russia  to  retain  half  the  island 
of  Saghalien.  Neither  nation  was  satisfied  with  the 
terms,  but  both  perceived  that  peace  was  preferable 
to  the  renewal  of  the  struggle  with  all  its  horrors 
and   uncertainties.     For   tendering   the   olive   branch 


BISHOP  FAVIER 
WTiO  defended  the  French  Cathedral 


^     OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


THE  RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR  193 

and  smoothing  the  way  for  its  acceptance,  President 
Roosevelt  merits  the  thanks  of  mankind.*  Besides 
other  advantages  Japan  has  assiired  her  position  as 
the  leading  power  of  the  Orient;  but  the  greatest 
gainer  will  be  Russia,  if  her  defeat  in  the  field  should 
lead  her  to  the  adoption  of  a  liberal  government  at 
home. 

"  Peace  hath  her  victories, 
No  less  renowned  than  war." 

The  Czar  signified  his  satisfaction  by  making  Witte 
the  head  of  a  reconstruction  ministry  and  by  conferring 
upon  him  the  title  of  Count;  and  the  Mikado  showed 
his  entire  confidence  in  Baron  Komura,  notwithstanding 
some  expressions  of  disappointment  among  the  people, 
by  assigning  him  the  delicate  task  of  negotiating  a 
treaty  with  China. 

Though  the  attitude  of  China  had  been  as  unheroic 
as  would  have  been  Menelaus'  had  the  latter  declared 
neutrality  in  the  Trojan  war,  the  issue  has  done  much 
to  rouse  the  spirit  of  the  Chinese  people.  Other 
wars  made  them  feel  their  weakness:  this  one  begot 
a  belief  in  their  latent  strength.  When  they  witnessed 
a  series  of  victories  on  land  and  sea  gained  by  the 
Japanese  over  one  of  the  most  formidable  powers  of 
the  West,  they  exclaimed,  "If  our  neighbour  can  do 
this,  why  may  we  not  do  the  same?  We  certainly 
can  if,  like  them,  we  break  with  the  effete  systems  of 
the  past.  Let  us  take  these  island  heroes  for  our 
schoolmasters." 


*  Since  this  was  written  a  Nobel  Peace  Prize  has  justly  been  awarded 
to  the  President. 


194  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

That  war  was  one  of  the  most  momentous  in  the 
annals  of  history.  It  unsettled  the  balance  of  power, 
and  opened  a  vista  of  untold  possibil'ties  for  the  yel- 
low race. 

Not  slow  to  act  on  their  new  convictions,  the  Chinese 
have  sent  a  small  army  of  ten  thousand  students  to 
Japan — of  whom  over  eight  thousand  are  there  now, 
while  they  have  imported  from  the  island  a  host  of 
instructors  whose  numbers  can  only  be  conjectured. 
The  earliest  to  come  were  in  the  military  sphere,  to 
rehabilitate  army  and  navy.  Then  came  professors 
of  every  sort,  engaged  by  public  or  private  institutions 
to  help  on  educational  reform.  Even  in  agriculture, 
on  which  they  have  hitherto  prided  themselves,  the 
Chinese  have  put  themselves  under  the  teaching  of 
the  Japanese,  while  with  good  reason  they  have  taken 
them  as  teachers  in  forestry  also.  Crowds  of  Japanese 
artificers  in  every  handicraft  find  ready  employment 
in  China.  Nor  will  it  be  long  before  pupils  and  ap- 
prentices in  these  home  schools  will  assume  the  role 
of  teacher,  while  Chinese  graduates  returning  from 
Japan  will  be  welcomed  as  professors  of  a  higher  grade. 
This  Japanning  process,  as  it  is  derisively  styled,  may 
be  somewhat  superficial;  but  it  has  the  recommenda- 
tion of  cheapness  and  rapidity  in  comparison  with 
depending  on  teachers  from  the  West.  It  has,  more- 
over, the  immense  advantage  of  racial  kinship  and 
example.  Of  course  the  few  students  who  go  to  the 
fountain-heads  of  science — in  the  West — must  when 
they  return  home  take  rank  as  China's  leading  teachers. 

All  this  inclines  one  to  conclude  that  a  rapid  trans- 
formation in  this  ancient  empire  is  to  be  counted  on. 


THE  RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR  195 

The  Chinese  will  soon  do  for  themselves  what  they 
are  now  getting  the  Japanese  to  do  for  them.  Japa- 
nese ideas  will  be  permanent;  but  the  direct  agency 
of  the  Japanese  people  will  certainly  become  less  con- 
spicuous than  it  now  is. 

To  the  honour  of  the  Japanese  Government,  the 
world  is  bound  to  acknowledge  that  the  island  nation 
has  not  abused  its  victories  to  wring  concessions  from 
China.  In  fact  to  the  eye  of  an  unprejudiced  observer 
it  appears  that  in  unreservedly  restoring  Manchuria 
Japan  has  allowed  an  interested  neutral  to  reap  a  dis- 
proportionate share  of  the  profits. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 

REFORM   IN  CHINA 

Reforms  under  the  Empress  Dowager — The  Eclectic 
Commission — Recent  Reforms — Naval  Abortion — 
Merchant  Marine — Army  Reform — Mining  Enter- 
prises— Railways — The  Telegraph — The  Post  Office 
— The  Customs — Sir  Robert  Hart — Educational  Re- 
form— The  Tung-Wen  College — The  Imperial  Uni- 
versity— Diplomatic  Intercourse — Progressive  Vice- 
roys— New  Tests  for  Honours — Legal  Reform — 
Newspapers — Social  Reforms — Reading  Rooms — 
Reform  in  Writing — Anti-foot-binding  Society — The 
Streets. 

'•TT7HEN  I  returned  from  England,"  said  Marquis 
VV  Ito,  "my  chief,  the  Prince  of  Chosin,  asked  me 
if  I  thought  anything  needed  to  be  changed  in  Japan. 
I  answered,  'Everything.'  "  These  words  were  ad- 
dressed in  my  hearing,  as  I  have  elsewhere  recorded, 
to  three  Chinese  statesmen,  of  whom  Li  Hung  Chang 
was  one.  The  object  of  the  speaker  was  to  emphasise 
the  importance  of  reform  in  China.  He  was  unfortunate 
in  the  time  of  his  visit — it  was  just  after  the  coup 
d'etat,  in  1898.  His  hearers  were  men  of  light  and 
leading,  in  sympathy  with  his  views;  but  reform  was 
on  the  ebb;  a  ruinous  recoil  was  to  follow;  and  nothing 

came  of  his  suggestions. 

196 


REFORM  IN  CHINA  197 

The  emperor  had  indeed  shown  himself  mdined 
to  "change  everything,"  but  at  that  moment  his 
power  was  paralysed.  What  vicissitudes  he  has 
passed  through  since  that  date!  Should  he  come 
again  to  power,  as  now  seems  probable,  may  he  not, 
sobered  by  3^ears  and  prudent  from  experience,  still 
carry  into  effect  his  grand  scheme  for  the  renovation 
of  China.  To  him  a  golden  dream,  will  it  ever  be  a 
reality  to  his  people? 

Taught  by  the  failure  of  a  reaction  on  which  she  had 
staked  her  life  and  her  throne,  the  Dowager  has  become 
a  convert  to  the  policy  of  progress.  She  has,  in  fact, 
outstripped  her  nephew.  "Long  may  she  live!" 
"Late  may  he  rule  us! "  During  her  lifetime  she  may 
be  counted  on  to  carry  forward  the  cause  she  has  so 
ardently  espoused.  She  grasps  the  reins  with  a  firm 
hand;  and  her  courage  is  such  that  she  does  not  hesitate 
to  drive  the  chariot  of  state  over  many  a  new  and  un- 
tried road.  She  knows  she  can  rely  on  the  support  of 
her  viceroys — men  of  her  own  appointment.  She 
knows  too  that  the  spirit  of  reform  is  abroad  in 
the  land,  and  that  the  heart  of  the  people  is  with 
her. 

The  best  embodiment  of  this  new  spirit  is  the  High 
Commission  sent  out  in  1905  to  study  the  institutions 
of  civilised  countries  east  and  west,  and  to  report  on 
the  adoption  of  such  as  they  deem  advisable.  The 
mere  sending  forth  of  such  an  embassy  is  enough  to 
make  her  reign  illustrious.  The  only  analogous  mis- 
sion in  the  history  of  China,  is  that  which  was  des- 
patched to  India,  in  66  a.  d.,  in  quest  of  a  better 
faith,  by  Ming-ti,  "The  Luminous."     The  earlier  em- 


1 98  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

bassy  borrowed  a  few  sparks  to  rekindle  the  altars 
of  their  country;  the  present  embassy  propose  to 
introduce  new  elements  in  the  way  of  political  reform. 
Their  first  recommendation,  if  not  their  first  report, 
reaches  me  while  I  write,  and  in  itself  is  amply  sufficient 
to  prove  that  this  High  Commission  is  not  a  sham 
designed  to  dazzle  or  deceive.  The  Court  Gazette, 
according  to  the  China  Times,  gives  the  following 
on  the  subject: 

"The  five  commissioners  have  sent  in  a  joint  memorial  dealing 
with  what  they  have  seen  in  foreign  countries  during  the  last 
three  months.  They  report  that  the  wealthiest  and  strongest 
nations  in  the  world  to-day  are  governed  by  constitutional 
government.  They  mention  the  proclamation  of  constitutional 
government  in  Russia,  and  remark  that  China  is  the  only  great 
country  that  has  not  adopted  that  principle.  As  they  have 
carefully  studied  the  systems  of  England,  the  United  States, 
Japan,  etc.,  they  earnestly  request  the  Throne  to  issue  a  decree 
fixing  on  five  years  as  the  limit  within  which  '  China  will  adopt  a 
constitutional  form  of  government.' 

"A  rescript  submits  this  recommendation  to  a  council  of 
state  to  advise  on  the  action  to  be  taken." 


If  that  venerable  body,  consisting  of  old  men  who 
hold  office  for  life,  does  not  take  umbrage  at  the  pros- 
pect of  another  tribunal  infringing  on  their  domain, 
we  shall  have  at  least  the  promise  of  a  parliament. 
And  five  years  hence,  if  the  conge  d'elire  goes  forth, 
it  will  rend  the  veil  of  ages.  It  implies  the  confer- 
ment on  the  people  of  power  hitherto  unknown  in 
their  history.  What  a  commotion  will  the  ballot- 
box  excite!     How  suddenly  will  it  arouse  the  dormant 


REFORM  IN  CHINA  199 

intellect  of  a  brainy  race!  But  it  is  premature  to 
speculate. 

In  1868  the  Mikado  granted  his  subjects  a  charter 
of  rights,  the  first  article  of  which  guarantees  freedom 
of  discussion,  and  engages  that  he  will  be  guided  by 
the  will  of  the  people.  In  China  does  not  the  coming 
of  a  parliament  involve  the  previous  issue  of  a  Magna 
Charta? 

It  is  little  more  than  four  years  since  the  restoration, 
as  the  return  of  the  Court  in  January,  1902,  may  be 
termed.  In  this  period,  it  is  safe  to  assert  that  more 
sweeping  reforms  have  been  decreed  in  China  than 
were  ever  enacted  in  a  half-century  by  any  other 
country,  if  one  excepts  Japan,  whose  example  the 
Chinese  profess  to  follow,  and  France,  in  the  Revolu- 
tion of  which  Macaulay  remarks  that  "they  changed 
everything — from  the  rites  of  religion  to  the  fashion 
of  a  shoe-buckle." 

Reference  will  here  be  made  to  a  few  of  the  more 
important  innovations  or  ameliorations  which,  taken 
together,  have  made  the  reign  of  the  Empress  Dowager 
the  most  brilliant  in  the  history  of  the  Empire.  The 
last  four  years  have  been  uncommonly  prolific  of  re- 
forms; but  the  tide  began  to  turn  after  the  peace  of 
Peking  in  i860.  Since  that  date  every  step  in  the 
adoption  of  modern  methods  has  been  taken  during 
the  reign  or  regency  of  this  remarkable  woman,  which 
dates  from  1861. 

As  late  as  1863  the  Chinese  Government  did  not 
possess  a  single  fighting-ship  propelled  by  steam. 
Steamers  belonging  to  Chinese  merchants  were  some- 
times employed  to  chase  pirates;  but  they  were  not 


200  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

the  property  of  the  state.  The  first  state-owned 
steamers,  at  least  the  first  owned  by  the  Central  Gov- 
ernment, was  a  flotilla  of  gunboats  purchased  that 
year  in  England  by  Mr.  Lay,  Inspector-General  of 
Maritime  Customs.  Dissatisfied  with  the  terms  he 
had  made  with  the  commander,  whom  he  had  bound 
not  to  act  on  any  orders  but  such  as  the  Inspector 
should  approve,  the  Government  dismissed  the  In- 
spector and  sold  the  ships. 

In  the  next  thirty  years  a  sufficient  naval  force  was 
raised  to  justify  the  appointment  of  an  admiral;  but 
in  1895  the  whole  fleet  was  destroyed  by  the  Japanese, 
and  Admiral  Ting  committed  suicide.  At  present 
there  is  a  squadron  under  each  viceroy;  but  all  com- 
bined would  hardly  form  the  nucleus  of  a  navy.  That 
the  Government  intend  to  create  a  navy  may  be  in- 
ferred from  the  establishment  of  a  Naval  Board.  In 
view  of  the  naval  exploits  of  Japan,  and  under  the 
guidance  of  Japanese,  they  are  certain  to  develop 
this  feeble  plant  and  to  make  it  formidable  to  some- 
body— perhaps  to  themselves. 

Their  merchant  marine  is  more  respectable.  With 
a  fleet  of  fifty  or  more  good  ships  the  China  Merchants' 
Steam  Navigation  Company  are  able  by  the  aid  of  sub- 
sidies and  special  privileges  to  compete  for  a  share 
in  the  coasting  trade;  but  as  yet  they  have  no  line 
trading  to  foreign  ports. 

In  i860  a  wild  horde  with  matchlocks,  bows,  and 
spears,  the  land  army  is  now  supplied  in  large  part 
with  repeating  rifles,  trained  in  Western  drill,  and 
dressed  in  uniform  of  the  Western  type.  The  manoeu- 
vres that  took  place  near  Peking  last  autumn  made 


REFORM  IN  CHINA  201 

a  gala  day  for  the  Imperial  Court,  which  expressed 
itself  as  more  than  satisfied  with  the  splendour  of  the 
spectacle.  The  contingent  belonging  to  this  province 
is  40,000,  and  the  total  thus  drilled  and  armed  is  not 
less  than  five  times  that  number.  Next  fall  the  troops 
of  five  provinces  are  to  meet  in  Honan.  Thanks  to 
railways,  something  like  concentration  is  coming 
within  the  range  of  possibility.  Not  deficient  in 
courage,  what  these  raw  battalions  require  to  make 
them  effective  is  confidence  in  themselves  and  in 
their  commanders.  Lacking  in  the  lively  patriotism 
that  makes  heroes  of  the  Japanese,  these  fine  big 
fellows  are  not  machines,  but  animals.  To  the  mis- 
taken efforts  recently  made  to  instil  that  sentiment 
at  the  expense  of  the  foreigner,  I  shall  refer  in  another 
chapter.  A  less  objectionable  phase  of  the  sentiment 
is  provincialism,  which  makes  it  easy  for  an  invader 
to  employ  the  troops  of  one  province  to  conquer 
^another.  In  history  these  provinces  appear  as  king- 
doms, and  their  mutual  wars  form  the  staple  subject. 
What  feeling  of  unity  can  exist  so  long  as  the  people 
are  divided  by  a  babel  of  dialects?  More  than  once 
have  Tartars  employed  Chinese  to  conquer  China; 
and  in  1900  a  fine  regiment  from  Wei-hai-wei  helped 
the  British  to  storm  Peking.  It  may  be  added  they 
repaid  themselves  by  treating  the  inhabitants  as 
conquered  foes.  Everywhere  they  were  conspicuous 
for  acts  of  lawless  violence. 

Three  great  arsenals,  not  to  speak  of  minor  estab- 
lishments, are  kept  busy  turning  out  artillery  and 
small  arms  for  the  national  army,  and  the  Board  of 
Army  Reform  has  the  supervision  of  those  forces,  with 


202  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

the  duty  of  making  them  not  provincial,  but  national. 
Efforts  of  this  kind,  however,  are  no  proof  of  a  reform 
spirit.  Are  not  the  same  to  be  seen  all  the  way  from 
Afghanistan  to  Dahomey  ?  "  To  be  weak  is  to  be  miser- 
able ' ' ;  [and  the  Chinese  are  right  in  making  military 
reorganisation  the  starting-point  of  a  new  policy.  Yet 
the  mere  proposal  of  a  parliament  is  a  better  indication 
of  the  spirit  of  reform  than  all  these  armaments. 

In  the  mind  of  China,  wealth  is  the  correlative  of 
strength.  The  two  ideas  are  combined  in  the  word 
Fuchiang,  which  expresses  national  prosperity.  Hence 
the  treasures  hidden  in  the  earth  could  not  be  neglected, 
when  they  had  given  up  the  follies  of  geomancy  and 
saw  foreigners  prospecting  and  applying  for  concessions 
to  work  mines.  At  first  such  applications  were  met 
by  a  puerile  quibble  as  to  the  effect  of  boring  on  the 
"pulse  of  the  Dragon" — in  their  eyes  not  the  guardian 
of  a  precious  deposit.but  the  personification  of  "good 
luck."  To  find  lucky  locations,  and  to  decide  what 
might  help  or  harm,  were  the  functions  of  a  learned 
body  of  professors  of  Fungshui,  a  false  science  which 
held  the  people  in  bondage  and  kept  the  mines  sealed 
up  until  our  own  day.  Gradually  the  Chinese  are 
shaking  off  the  incubus  and,  reckless  of  the  Dragon, 
are  forming  companies  for  the  exploitation  of  all  sorts 
of  minerals.  The  Government  has  framed  elaborate 
regulations  limiting  the  shares  of  foreigners,  and 
encouraging  their  own  people  to  engage  in  mining 
enterprises. 

"Give  up  your  Fungshui; 
It  keeps  your  wealth  locked  up," 

says  a  verse  of  Viceroy  Chang. 


REFORM  IN  CHINA  203 

A  similar  change  has  taken  place  in  sentiment  as 
regards  railways.  At  first  dreaded  as  an  instrument  of 
foreign  aggression,  they  are  now  understood  to  be  the 
best  of  auxiliaries  for  national  defence.  It  has  further 
dawned  on  the  mind  of  a  grasping  mandarinate  that 
they  may  be  utilised  as  a  source  of  revenue.  If  stocks 
pay  well,  why  should  not  the  Government  hold  them  ? 
"Your  railways  pay  10  per  cent. — that's  the  sort  of 
railway  we  want  in  China,"  said  one  of  the  commis- 
sioners at  a  banquet  in  England. 

It  would  not  be  strange  if  the  nationalisation  of 
railways  decided  on  this  spring  in  Japan  should  lead  to 
a  similar  movement  in  China.  In  a  country  like  Ameri- 
ca, with  300,000  miles  of  track,  the  purchase  would 
be  ultra  vires  in  more  senses  than  one,  but  with  only 
I  per  cent,  of  that  mileage,  the  purchase  would  not  be 
difficult,  though  it  might  not  be  so  easy  to  secure  an 
honest  administration. 

Trains  from  Peking  now  reach  Hankow  (600  miles) 
in  thirty-six  hours.  When  the  grand  trunk  is  com- 
pleted, through  trains  from  the  capital  will  reach 
Canton  in  three  days.  Set  this  over  against  the  three 
months'  sea  voyage  of  former  times  (a  voyage  made 
only  once  a  year) ,  or  against  the  ten  days  now  required 
for  the  trip  by  steamer!  What  a  potent  factor  is  the 
railroad  in  the  progress  of  a  great  country! 

The  new  enterprises  in  this  field  would  be  burden- 
some to  enumerate.  Shanghai  is  to  be  connected  by 
rail  with  Tientsin  (which  means  Peking),  and  with 
Nanking  and  Suchow.  Lines  to  penetrate  the  western 
provinces  are  already  mapped  out;  and  even  in  Mon- 
golia it  is  proposed  to  supersede  the  camel  by  the  iron 


204  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

horse  on  the  caravan  route  to  Russia.  "Alas!  the 
age  of  golden  leisure  is  gone — the  iron  age  of  hurr>"- 
skurry  is  upon  us!"  This  is  the  lament  of  old  slow- 
going  China. 

When  China  purchased  the  Shanghai- Woosung  rail- 
way in  1876,  she  was  thought  to  be  going  ahead. 
What  did  we  think  when  she  tore  up  the  track  and 
dumped  it  in  the  river?  An  aeon  seems  to  have  passed 
since  that  day  of  darkness. 

The  advent  of  railways  has  been  slow  in  comparison 
with  the  telegraph.  The  provinces  are  covered  with 
wires.  Governors  and  captains  consult  with  each 
other  by  wire,  in  preference  to  a  tardy  exchange  of 
written  correspondence.  The  people,  too,  appreciate 
the  advantage  of  communicating  by  a  flash  with  distant 
members  of  their  families,  and  of  settling  questions 
of  business  at  remote  places  without  stirring  from 
their  own  doors.  To  have  their  thunder  god  bottled 
up  and  brought  down  to  be  their  courier  was  to  them 
the  wonder  of  wonders;  yet  they  have  now  become 
so  accustomed  to  this  startling  innovation,  that  they 
cease  to  marvel. 

The  wireless  telegraph  is  also  at  work — a  little 
manual,  translated  by  a  native  Christian,  tells  people 
how  to  use  it. 

Over  forty  years  ago,  when  I  exhibited  the  Morse 
system  to  the  astonished  dignitaries  of  Peking,  those 
old  men,  though  heads  of  departments,  chuckled  like 
children  when,  touching  a  button,  they  heard  a  bell 
ring;  or  when  wrapping  a  wire  round  their  bodies, 
they  saw  the  lightning  leap  from  point  to  point.  "  It's 
wonderful,"  they  exclaimed,  "but  we  can't  use  it  in 


REFORM  IN  CHINA  205 

our  country.  The  people  would  steal  the  wires." 
Electric  bells  are  now  common  appliances  in  the 
houses  of  Chinese  who  live  in  foreign  settlements. 
Electric  trolleys  are  soon  to  be  running  at  Shanghai 
and  Tientsin.  Telephones,  both  private  and  public, 
are  a  convenience  much  appreciated.  Accustomed 
as  the  Chinese  are  to  the  instantaneous  transmission 
of  thought  and  speech,  they  have  yet  to  see  the  telodyne 
— electricity  as  a  transmitter  of  force.  But  will  they 
not  see  it  when  the  trolleys  run?  The  advent  of  elec- 
tric power  will  mark  an  epoch. 

China's  weakness  is  not  due  wholly  to  backwardness 
in  the  arts  and  sciences.  It  is  to  be  equally  ascribed  to 
defective  connection  of  parts  and  to  a  lack  of  com- 
munication between  places.  Hence  a  sense  of  solidar- 
ity is  wanting,  and  instead  there  is  a  predominance 
of  local  over  national  interests.  For  this  disease  the 
remedy  is  forthcoming — rail  and  wire  are  rapidly 
welding  the  disjointed  members  of  the  Empire  into 
a  solid  unity.  The  post  office  contributes  to  the 
same  result. 

A  postal  system  China  has  long  possessed:  mounted 
couriers  for  official  despatches,  and  foot  messengers 
for  private  parties,  the  Government  providing  the 
former,  and  merchant  companies  the  latter.  The 
modernised  post  office,  now  operating  in  every  prov- 
ince, provides  for  both.  To  most  of  the  large  towns 
the  mails  are  carried  by  steamboat  or  railroad — o. 
marvellous  gain  in  time,  compared  with  horse  or  foot. 
The  old  method  was  slow  and  uncertain;  the  new  is 
safe  and   expeditious. 

That  the  people  appreciate  the  change  is  shoWn  by 


2o6  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

the  following  figures:  In  1904  stamps  to  the  amount 
of  $400,000  (Mexican)  were  sold;  in  1905  the  sale  rose 
to  $600,000 — an  advance  of  50  per  cent,  in  one  year. 
What  may  we  not  expect  when  the  women  learn  to 
read,  and  when  education  becomes  more  general 
among  men? 

Sir  Robert  Hart,  from  whom  I  had  this  statement, 
is  the  father  of  China's  postal  system.  Overcoming 
opposition  with  patience  and  prudence,  he  has  given 
the  post  office  a  thorough  organisation  and  has  secured 
for  it  the  confidence  of  princes  and  people.  Already 
does  the  Government  look  to  it  as  a  prospective  source 
of   revenue. 

To  the  maritime  customs  service,  Sir  Robert  has 
been  a  foster-father.  Provided  for  by  treaty,  it  was 
in  operation  before  he  took  charge,  in  1863;  but  to 
him  belongs  the  honour  of  having  nursed  the  infant 
up  to  vigorous  maturity  by  the  unwearied  exertions 
of  nearly  half  a  century.  While  the  post  office  is  a 
new  development,  the  maritime  customs  have  long 
been  looked  upon  as  the  most  reliable  branch  of  the 
revenue  service.  China's  debts  to  foreign  countries, 
whether  for  loans  or  indemnities,  are  invariably  paid 
from  the  customs  revenue.  The  Government,  though 
disinclined  to  have  such  large  concerns  administered 
by  foreign  agents,  is  reconciled  to  the  arrangement 
in  the  case  of  the  customs  by  finding  it  a  source  of 
growing  income.  The  receipts  for  1905  amounted  to 
35,111,000  taels=  £5,281,000.  In  volume  of  trade 
this  shows  a  gain  of  iij  per  cent,  on  1904;  but,  owing 
to  a  favouring  gale  from  the  happy  isles  of  high  finance, 
in  sterling  value  the  gain  is  actually  17  per  cent. 


REFORM  IN  CHINA  207 

To  a  thoughtful  mind,  native  or  foreign,  the  mari- 
time customs  are  not  to  be  estimated  by  a  money 
standard.  They  rank  high  among  the  agencies  work- 
ing for  the  renovation  of  China.  They  furnish  an 
object-lesson  in  official  integrity,  showing  how  men 
brought  up  under  the  influence  of  Christian  morals  can 
collect  large  sums  and  pay  them  over  without  a  par- 
ticle sticking  to  their  fingers.  While  the  local  com- 
missioners have  carried  liberal  ideas  into  mandarin 
circles  all  along  the  seacoast  and  up  the  great  rivers 
into  the  interior,  the  Inspector-General  (the  "I.  G." 
as  Sir  Robert  is  usually  called)  has  been  the  zealous 
advocate  of  every  step  in  the  way  of  reform  at  head- 
quarters. 

Another  man  in  his  position  might  have  been  con- 
tented to  be  a  mere  fiscal  agent,  but  Sir  Robert  Hart's 
fertile  brain  has  been  unceasingly  active  for  nearly 
half  a  century  in  devising  schemes  for  the  good  of 
China.  All  the  honours  and  wealth  that  China  has 
heaped  on  her  trusted  adviser  are  far  from  being 
sufficient  to  cancel  her  obligations.  It  was  he  who 
prompted  a  timid,  groping  government  to  take  the 
first  steps  in  the  way  of  diplomatic  intercourse.  It 
was  he  who  led  them  to  raise  their  school  of  inter- 
preters to  the  rank  of  a  diplomatic  college.  He  it 
was  who  made  peace  in  the  war  with  France;  and 
in  1900,  after  the  flight  of  the  Court,  he  it  was  who 
acted  as  intermediary  between  the  foreign  powers 
and  Prince  Ching.  To  some  of  these  notable  services 
I  shall  refer  elsewhere.  I  speak  of  them  here  for 
the  purpose  of  emphasising  my  disapproval  of  an 
intrigue  designed  to  oust  Sir  Robert  and  to  overturn 


2o8  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

the  lofty  structure  which  he  has  made  into  a  light- 
house for  China. 

In  May,  1906,  two  ministers  were  appointed  by  the 
Throne  to  take  charge  of  the  entire  customs  service, 
with  plenary  powers  to  reform  or  modify  ad  libitum. 
Sir  Robert  was  not  consulted,  nor  was  he  mentioned 
in  the  decree.  He  was  not  dismissed,  but  was  virtually 
superseded.  Britain,  America,  and  other  powers  took 
alarm  for  the  safety  of  interests  involved,  and  united 
in  a  protest.  The  Government  explained  that  it  was 
merely  substituting  one  tribunal  for  another,  creating 
a  dual  headship  for  the  customs  service  instead  of 
leaving  it  under  the  Board  of  Foreign  Affairs,  a 
body  already  overburdened  with  responsibilities.  They 
gave  a  solemn  promise  that  while  Sir  Robert  Hart 
remained  there  should  be  no  change  in  his  status  or 
powers;  and  so  the  matter  stands.  The  protest 
saved  the  situation  for  the  present.  Explanation 
and  promise  were  accepted;  but  the  Government 
(or  rather  the  two  men  who  got  themselves  appointed 
to  a  fat  office)  remain  under  the  reproach  of  discourtesy 
and  ingratitude.  The  two  men  are  Tieliang,  a  Manchu, 
and  Tang  Shao-yi,  a  Chinese.  The  latter,  I  am  told 
on  good  authority,  is  to  have  ;^3 0,000  per  annimi. 
The  other  will  not  have  less.  This  enormous  salary 
is  paid  to  secure  honesty. 

In  China  every  official  has  his  salary  paid  in  two 
parts:  one  called  the  "regular  stipend,"  the  other, 
a  "solatium  to  encourage  honesty."  The  former  is 
counted  by  hundreds  of  taels;  the  latter,  by  thousands, 
especiall}^  where  there  is  a  temptation  to  peculate. 
What  a  rottenness  at  the  core  is  here  betrayed! 


"^     OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


REFORM  IN  CHINA  209 

A  new  development  worthy  of  all  praise  is  the  open- 
ing, by  imperial  command,  of  a  school  for  the  training 
of  officials  for  the  customs  service.  It  is  a  measure 
which  Sir  Robert  Hart  with  all  his  public  spirit,  never 
ventured  to  recommend,  because  it  implies  the  speedy 
replacement  of  the  foreign  staff  by  trained  natives. 

Filling  the  sky  with  a  glow  of  hope  not  unlike  the 
approach  of  sunshine  after  an  arctic  winter,  the  re- 
form in  the  field  of  education  throws  all  others  into 
the  shade.  By  all  parties  is  recognised  its  supremacy. 
Its  beginning  was  feeble  and  unwelcome,  implying 
on  the  part  of  China  nothing  but  a  few  drops  of  oil 
to  relieve  the  friction  at  a  few  points  of  contact  with 
the  outside  world. 

The  new  treaties  found  China  unprovided  with  inter- 
preters capable  of  translating  documents  in  foreign 
languages.  Foreign  nations  agreed  to  accompany 
their  despatches  with  a  Chinese  version,  until  a  com- 
petent staff  of  interpreters  should  be  provided.  With 
a  view  to  meeting  this  initial  want,  a  school  was  opened 
in  1862,  in  connection  with  the  Foreign  Office,  and 
placed  under  the  direction  of  the  Inspector-General 
of  Maritime  Customs,  by  whom  I  was  recommended 
for  the  presidency.  Professors  of  English,  French, 
and  Russian  were  engaged;  and  later  on  German 
took  a  place  alongside  of  the  three  leading  languages 
of  the  Western  world. 

At  first  no  science  was  taught  or  expected,  but 
gradually  we  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  consent  of 
the  Chinese  ministers  to  enlarge  our  faculty  so  as  to 
include  chairs  of  astronomy,  mathematics,  chemistry, 
and  physics.     International  law  was   taught  by  the 


2IO  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

president;  and  by  him  also  the  Chinese  were  supplied 
with  their  first  text-books  on  the  law  of  nations.  What 
use  had  they  for  books  on  that  subject,  so  long  as 
they  held  no  intercourse  on  equal  terms  with  foreign 
countries?  The  students  trained  in  that  school  of 
diplomacy  had  to  shiver  in  the  cold  for  many  a  year 
before  the  Government  recognised  their  merits  and  re- 
warded them  with  official  appointments.  The  minister 
recently  returned  from  London,  the  ministers  now 
in  Germany  and  Japan,  and  a  minister  formerly  in 
France,  not  to  speak  of  secretaries  of  legation  and 
consuls,  were  all  graduates  of  our  earlier  classes. 

In  1898  the  young  Emperor,  taught  by  defeat  at 
the  hands  of  the  Japanese,  resolved  on  a  thorough 
reform  in  the  system  of  national  education.  It  would 
never  do  to  confine  the  knowledge  of  Western  science 
to  a  handful  of  interpreters  and  attaches.  The  highest 
scholars  of  the  Empire  must  be  allowed  access  to  the 
fountain  of  national  strength.  A  university  was 
created  with  a  capital  of  five  million  taels,  and  the 
writer  was  made  president  by  an  imperial  decree 
which  conferred  on  him  the  highest  but  one  of  the 
nine  grades  of  the  mandarinate. 

Two  or  three  hundred  students  were  enrolled, 
among  whom  were  bachelors,  masters,  and  doctors 
of  the  civil  service  examinations.  It  was  launched 
with  a  favouring  breeze;  but  the  wind  changed  with 
the  coup  d'etat  of  the  Empress  Dowager,  and  two 
years  later  the  university  went  down  in  the  Boxer 
cyclone.  A  professor,  a  tutor,  and  a  student  lost 
their  lives.  How  the  cause  of  educational  reform 
rose  stronger  after  the   storm,  I    relate  in   a  special 


REFORM  IN  CHINA  211 

chapter.  It  is  a  far  cry  from  a  university  for  the 
elite  to  that  elaborate  system  of  national  education 
which  is  destined  to  plant  its  schools  in  every  town 
and  hamlet  in  the  Empire.  The  new  education  was 
in  fact  still  regarded  with  suspicion  by  the  honour 
men  of  the  old  system.  They  looked  on  it,  as  they 
did  on  the  railway,  as  a  source  of  danger,  a  perilous 
experiment. 

As  yet  the  intercourse  was  one-sided:  envoys  came; 
but  none  were  sent.  Embassies  were  no  novelty; 
but  they  had  always  moved  on  an  inclined  plane, 
either  coming  up  laden  with  tribute,  or  going  down 
bearing  commands.  Where  there  was  no  tribute 
and  no  command,  why  send  them?  Why  send  to 
the  very  people  who  had  robbed  China  of  her  su- 
premacy! It  was  a  bitter  pill,  and  she  long  refused 
to  swallow  it.  Hart  gilded  the  dose  and  she  took  it. 
Obtaining  leave  to  go  home  to  get  married,  he 
proposed  that  he  should  be  accompanied  by  his  teacher, 
Pinchun,  a  learned  Manchu,  as  unofficial  envoy — 
with  the  agreeable  duty  to  see  and  report.  It  was 
a  travelling  commission,  not  like  that  of  1905-06,  to 
seek  light,  but  to  ascertain  whether  the  representative 
of  a  power  so  humbled  and  insulted  would  be  treated 
with  common  decency. 

The  old  pundit  was  a  poet.  All  Chinese  pundits 
are  poets;  but  Pinchun  had  real  gifts,  and  the  flow 
of  champagne  kindled  his  inspiration.  Every^vhere 
wined  and  dined,  though  accredited  to  no  court,  he 
was  in  raptures  at  the  magnificence  of  the  nations  of 
the  West.  He  lauded  their  wealth,  culture,  and 
scenery  in  faultless  verse;  and  if  he  indulged  in  satire, 


212  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

it  was  not  for  the  public  eye.  He  was  attended  by 
several  of  our  students,  to  whom  the  travelling  com- 
mission was  an  education.  They  were  destined, 
after  long  waiting  as  I  have  said,  to  revisit  the  Western 
world,  clothed  with  higher  powers. 

The  impression  made  on  both  sides  was  favourable, 
and  the  way  was  prepared  for  a  genuine  embassy. 
The  United  States  minister,  Anson  Burlingame,  a 
man  of  keen  penetration  and  broad  sympathies,  had 
made  himself  exceedingly  acceptable  to  the  Foreign 
Office  at  Peking.  When  he  was  taking  leave  to  re- 
turn home,  in  1867,  the  Chinese  ministers  begged  his 
good  offices  with  the  United  States  Government  and 
with  other  governments  as  occasion  might  offer — 
"In  short,  you  will  be  our  ambassador,"  they  said, 
with  hearty  good-will. 

Burlingame,  who  grasped  the  possibilities  of  the 
situation,  called  at  the  Customs  on  his  way  to  the 
Legation.  Hart  seized  the  psychological  moment, 
and,  hastening  to  the  Yamen,  induced  the  ministers 
to  turn  a  pleasantry  into  a  reality.  The  Dowagers 
(for  there  were  two)  assented  to  the  proposal  of  Prince 
Kung,  to  invest  Burlingame  with  a  roving  commission 
to  all  the  Treaty  powers,  and  to  associate  with  him 
a  Manchu  and  a  Chinese  with  the  rank  of  minister. 
An  "oecumenical  embassy"  was  the  result.  Some 
of  our  students  were  again  attached  to  the  suite; 
reciprocal  intercourse  had  begun;  and  Burlingame 
has  the  glory  of  initiating  it. 

In  the  work  of  reform  three  viceroys  stand  pre- 
eminent, viz.,  Li  Hung  Chang,  Yuen  Shi  Kai  and 
Chang  Chitung.     Li,  besides  organising  an  army  and 


REFORM  IN  CHINA  213 

a  navy  (both  demolished  by  the  Japanese  in  1895), 
founded  a  university  at  Tienstin,  and  placed  Dr. 
Tenney  at  the  head  of  it.  Yuen,  coming  to  the  same 
viceroy alty  with  the  lesson  of  the  Boxer  War  before 
his  eyes,  has  made  the  army  and  education  objects 
of  special  care.  In  the  latter  field  he  had  had  the  able 
assistance  of  Dr.  Tenney,  and  succeeded  in  making 
the  schools  of  the  province  of  Chihli  an  example  for 
the  Empire. 

Viceroy  Chang  has  the  distinction  of  being  the  first 
man  (with  the  exception  of  Kang  Yuwei)  to  start 
the  emperor  on  the  path  of  reform.  Holding  that, 
to  be  rich,  China  must  have  the  industrial  arts  of  the 
West,  and  to  be  strong  she  must  have  the  sciences  of 
the  West,  he  has  taken  the  lead  in  advocating  and 
introducing  both.  Having  been  called,  after  the 
suspension  of  the  Imperial  University,  to  assist  this 
enlightened  satrap  in  his  great  enterprise,  I  cannot 
better  illustrate  the  progress  of  reform  than  by  devot- 
ing a  separate  chapter  to  him  and  to  my  observations 
during  three  years  in  Central  China. 

Tests  of  scholarship  and  qualifications  for  office 
have  undergone  a  complete  change.  The  regulation 
essay,  for  centuries  supreme  in  the  examinations  for 
the  civil  service,  is  abolished;  and  more  solid  acquire- 
ments have  taken  its  place.  It  takes  time  to  adjust 
such  an  ancient  system  to  new  conditions.  That  this 
will  be  accomplished  is  sufficiently  indicated  by  the 
fact  that  in  May,  1906,  degrees  answering  to  A.  M. 
and  Ph.  D.  were  conferred  on  quite  a  number  of 
students  who  had  completed  their  studies  at  universi- 
ties in  foreign  countries.     As  a  result  there  is  certain 


214  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

to  be  a  rush  of  students  to  Europe  and  America,  the 
fountain-heads  of  science.  Forty  young  men  selected 
by  Viceroy  Yuen  from  the  advanced  classes  of  his 
schools  have  just  now  been  despatched  under  the 
superintendence  of  Dr.  Tenney  to  pursue  professional 
studies  in  the  United  States.  This  promising  mis- 
sion is  partly  due  to  the  relaxation  of  the  rigour  of  the 
exclusion  laws. 

The  Chinese  assessor  of  the  Mixed  Court  in  Shanghai 
was  dismissed  the  other  day  because  he  had  con- 
demned criminals  to  be  beaten  with  rods — a  favourite 
punishment,  in  which  there  is  a  way  to  alleviate  the 
blows.  Slicing,  branding,  and  other  horrible  punish- 
ments with  torture  to  extort  confessions  have  been 
forbidden  by  imperial  decree.  Conscious  of  the  con- 
tempt excited  by  such  barbarities,  and  desirous  of 
removing  an  obstacle  to  admission  to  the  comity  of 
nations,  the  Government  has  undertaken  to  revise 
its  penal  code.  Wu-ting-fang,  so  well  known  as 
minister  at  Washington,  has  borne  a  chief  part  in  this 
honourable  task.  The  code  is  not  yet  published; 
but  magistrates  are  required  to  act  on  its  general 
principles.  When  completed  it  will  no  doubt  provide 
for  a  jury,  a  thing  hitherto  unknown  in  China.  The 
commissioners  on  legal  reform  have  already  sent  up 
a  memorial  explaining  the  functions  of  a  jury;  and, 
to  render  its  adoption  palatable,  they  declare  that 
it  is  an  ancient  institution,  having  been  in  use  in  China 
three  thousand  years  ago.  They  leave  the  Throne 
to   infer   that   Westerners   borrowed   it   from   China. 

The  fact  is  that  each  magistrate  is  a  petty  tyrant, 
embodying  in  his  person  the  functions  of  local  governor, 


REFORM  IN  CHINA  215 

judge,  and  jury,  though  there  are  limits  to  his  discre- 
tion and  room  for  appeal  or  complaint.  It  is  to  be 
hoped  that  lawyers  and  legal  education  will  find  a 
place  in  the  administration  of  justice. 

Formerly  clinging  to  a  foreign  flagstaff,  the  editor 
of  a  Chinese  journal  cautiously  hinted  the  need  for 
some  kinds  of  reform.  Within  this  lustrum  mirahile 
the  daily  press  has  taken  the  Empire  by  storm.  Some 
twenty  or  more  journals  have  sprung  up  under  the 
shadow  of  the  throne,  and  they  are  not  gagged.  They 
go  to  the  length  of  their  tether  in  discussing  affairs  of 
state — notwithstanding  cautionary  hints.  Refraining 
from  open  attack,  they  indulge  in  covert  criticism 
of  the  Government  and  its  agents. 

Social  reforms  open  to  ambitious  editors  a  wide 
field  and  make  amends  for  exclusion  from  the  political 
arena.  One  of  the  most  influential  recently  deplored 
the  want  of  vitality  in  the  old  religions  of  the  country, 
and,  regarding  their  reformation  as  hopeless,  openly 
advocated  the  adoption  of  Christianity.  To  be  in- 
dependent of  the  foreigner  it  must,  he  said,  be  made 
a  state  church,  with  one  of  the  princes  for  a  figure- 
head, if  not  for  pilot. 

Another  deals  with  the  subject  of  marriage.  Many 
improvements,  he  says,  are  to  be  made  in  the  legal 
status  of  woman.  The  total  abolition  of  polygamy 
might  be  premature;  but  that  is  to  be  kept  in  view. 
In  another  issue  he  expresses  a  regret  that  the  Western 
usage  of  personal  courtship  cannot  safely  be  intro- 
duced. Those  who  are  to  be  companions  for  life 
cannot  as  yet  be  allowed  to  see  each  other,  as  disorders 
might  result  from  excess  of  freedom.     Such  liberty 


2i6  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

in  social  relations  is  impracticable  ' '  except  in  a  highly 
refined  and  well-ordered  state  of  society."  The 
same  or  another  writer  proposes,  by  way  of  enlarging 
woman's  world,  that  she  shall  not  be  confined  to  the 
house,  but  be  allowed  to  circulate  as  freely  as  Western 
women  but  she  must  hide  her  charms  behind  a 
veil. 

Reporting  an  altercation  between  a  policeman  and 
the  driver  of  one  of  Prince  Ching's  carts,  who  insisted ' 
on  driving  on  tracks  forbidden  to  common  people, 
an  editor  suggests  with  mild  sarcasm  that  a  notice  be 
posted  in  such  cases  stating  that  only  "noblemen's 
carts  are  allowed  to  pass."  Do  not  these  specimens 
show  a  laudable  attempt  to  simulate  a  free  press  ? 
Free  it  is  by  sufferance,  though  not  by  law. 

Reading-rooms  are  a  new  institution  full  of  promise. 
They  are  not  libraries,  but  places  for  reading  and 
expounding  newspapers  for  the  benefit  of  those  who 
are  unable  to  read  for  themselves.  Numerous  rooms 
may  be  seen  at  the  street  corners,  where  men  are  re- 
citing the  contents  of  a  paper  to  an  eager  crowd. 
They  have  the  air  of  wayside  chapels;  and  this  mode 
of  enlightening  the  ignorant  was  confessedly  bor- 
rowed from  the  missionary.  How  urgent  the  need, 
where  among  the  men  only  one  in  twenty  can 
read;    and   among    women    not   one   in   a   hundred! 

Reform  in  writing  is  a  genuine  novelty,  Chinese 
writing  being  a  development  of  hieroglyphics,  in  which 
the  sound  is  no  index  to  the  sense,  and  in  which  each 
pictorial  form  must  be  separately  made  familiar 
to  the  eye.  Dr.  Medhurst  wittily  calls  it  "  an  occulage, 
not  a  language."     Without  the  introduction  of  alpha- 


REFORM  IN  CHINA  217 

betic  writing,  the  art  of  reading  can  never  become 
general.  To  meet  this  want  a  new  alphabet  of  fifty 
letters  has  been  invented,  and  a  society  organised  to 
push  the  system,  so  that  the  common  people,  also 
women,  may  soon  be  able  to  read  the  papers  for  them- 
selves. The  author  of  the  system  is  Wang  Chao, 
mentioned  above  as  having  given  occasion  for  the 
coup  d'etat  by  which  the  Dowager  Empress  was  re- 
stored to  power  in  1898. 

I  close  this  formidable  list  of  reforms  with  a  few 
words  on  a  society  for  the  abolition  of  a  usage  which 
makes  Chinese  women  the  laughing-stock  of  the 
world,  namely,  the  binding  of  their  feet.  With  the 
minds  of  her  daughters  cramped  by  ignorance,  and 
their  feet  crippled  by  the  tyranny  of  an  absurd  fashion, 
China  suffers  an  immense  loss,  social  and  economic. 
Happily  there  are  now  indications  that  the  proposed 
enfranchisement  will  meet  with  general  favour.  Lately 
I  heard  mandarins  of  high  rank  advocate  this  cause 
in  the  hearing  of  a  large  concourse  at  Shanghai.  They 
have  given  a  pledge  that  there  shall  be  no  more  foot- 
binding  in  their  families;  and  the  Dowager  Empress 
comes  to  the  support  of  the  cause  with  a  hortatory 
edict.  As  in  this  matter  she  dare  not  prohibit,  she 
is  limited  to  persuasion  and  example.  Tartar  women 
have  their  powers  of  locomotion  unimpaired.  Viceroy 
Chang  denounced  the  fashion  as  tending  to  sap  the 
vigour  of  China's  mothers;  and  he  is  reported  to  have 
suggested  a  tax  on  small  feet — in  inverse  proportion  to 
their  size,  of  course.  The  leader  in  this  movement, 
which  bids  fair  to  become  national,  is  Mrs.  Archibald 
Little. 


2i8  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

The  streets  are  patrolled  by  a  well-dressed  and 
well-armed  police  force,  in  strong  contrast  with  the 
ragged,  negligent  watchmen  of  yore.  The  Chinese, 
it  seems,  are  in  earnest  about  mending  their  ways. 
Their  streets,  in  Peking  and  other  cities,  are  under- 
going thorough  repair — so  that  broughams  and  rick- 
shaws are  beginning  to  take  the  place  of  carts  and 
palanquins.  A  foreign  style  of  building  is  winning 
favour;  and  the  adoption  of  foreign  dress  is  talked  of. 
When  these  changes  come,  what  will  be  left  of  this 
queer   antique? 


CHAPTER  XXX 

VICEROY  CHANG— A  LEADER  OF  REFORM 

His  Origin — Course  as  a  Student — In  the  Censorate — 
He  Floors  a  Magnate — The  First  to  Wake  Up — As 
a  Leader  of  Reform — The  Awakening  of  the  Giant 

IF  I  were  writing  of  Chang,  the  Chinese  giant,  who 
overtopped  the  tallest  of  his  fellow-men  by 
head  and  shoulders,  I  should  be  sure  of  readers.  Physi- 
cal phenomena  attract  attention  more  than  mental 
or  moral  grandeur.  Is  it  not  because  greatness  in 
these  higher  realms  requires  patient  thought  for  due 
appreciation  ? 

Chang,  the  viceroy  of  Hukwang,  a  giant  in  intellect 
and  a  hero  in  achievement,  is  not  a  commonplace 
character.  If  my  readers  will  follow  me,  while  I 
trace  his  rise  and  progress,  not  only  will  they  discover 
that  he  stands  head  and  shoulders  above  most  officials 
of  his  rank,  but  they  will  gain  important  side-lights 
on  great  events  in  recent  history. 

During  my  forty  years'  residence  in  the  capital  I 
had  become  well  acquainted  with  Chang's  brilliant 
career;  but  it  is  only  within  the  last  three  or  four  years 
that  I  have  had  an  opportunity  to  study  him  in  per- 
sonal intercourse,  having  been  called  to  preside  over 
his  university  and  to  aid  him  in  other  educational 

•enterprises. 

219 


2  20  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

Whatever  may  be  thought  of  the  rank  and  file  of 
China's  mandarins,  her  viceroys  are  nearly  always 
men  of  exceptional  ability.  They  are  never  novices, 
but  as  a  rule  old  in  years  and  veterans  in  experience. 
Promoted  for  executive  talent  or  for  signal  services, 
their  office  is  too  high  to  be  in  the  market;  nor  is  it 
probable  that  money  can  do  much  to  recommend  a 
candidate.  A  governor  of  Kwangsi  was  recently 
dismissed  for  incompetence,  or  for  ill-success  against 
a  body  of  rebels.  Being  a  rich  man,  he  made  a  free 
use  of  that  argument  which  commonly  proves  effective 
at  Peking.  But,  so  far  from  being  advanced  to  the 
viceroyalty,  he  was  not  even  reinstated  in  his  original 
rank.  The  most  he  was  able  to  obtain  by  a  lavish 
expenditure  was  the  inspectorship  of  a  college  at 
Wuchang,  to  put  his  foot  on  one  of  the  lower  rounds 
of  the  official  ladder. 

Chang  was  never  rich  enough  to  buy  official  honours, 
even  in  the  lower  grades;  and  it  is  one  of  his  chief 
glories  that,  after  a  score  of  years  in  the  exercise  of 
viceregal  power,  he  continues  to  be  relatively  poor. 

His  name  in  full  is  Chang  Chi-tung,  meaning  "Long- 
bow of  the  Cavern,"  an  allusion  to  a  tradition  that 
one  of  his  ancestors  was  born  in  a  cave  and  famed 
for  archery.  This  was  far  back  in  the  age  of  the 
troglodytes.  Now,  for  many  generations,  the  family 
has  been  devoted  to  the  peaceful  pursuit  of  letters. 
As  for  Chang  himself,  it  will  be  seen  with  what  deadly 
effect  he  has  been  able  to  use  the  pen,  in  his  hands  a 
more  formidable  weapon  than  the  longbow  of  his 
ancestor. 

Chang   was   born    at    Nanpi,    in    the   metropolitan 


VICEROY  CHANG  221 

province  of  Chihli,  not  qtiite  seventy  years  ago;  and 
that  circumstance  debarred  him  from  holding  the 
highest  viceroyalty  in  the  Empire,  as  no  man  is  per- 
mitted to  hold  office  in  his  native  place.  He  has 
climbed  to  his  present  eminence  without  the  extraneous 
aids  of  wealth  and  family  influence.  This  implies 
talents  of  no  ordinary  grade;  but  how  could  those 
talents  have  found  a  fit  arena  without  that  admirable 
system  of  literary  competition  which  for  so  many 
centuries  has  served  the  double  purpose  of  extending 
patronage  to  letters  and  of  securing  the  fittest  men  for 
the  service  of  the  state. 

Crowned  with  the  laurel  of  A.  B.,  or  budding  genius, 
before  he  was  out  of  his  teens,  three  years  later  he 
won  the  honour  of  A.  M.,  or,  as  the  Chinese  say,  he 
plucked  a  sprig  of  the  olea  fragrans  in  a  contest  with 
his  fellow-provincials  in  which  only  one  in  a  hundred 
gained  a  prize.  Proceeding  to  the  imperial  capital 
he  entered  the  lists  against  the  picked  scholars  of  all 
the  provinces.  The  prizes  were  3  per  cent,  of  the 
whole  number  of  competitors,  and  he  gained  the  doctor- 
ate in  letters,  which,  as  the  Chinese  title  indicates, 
assures  its  possessor  of  an  official  appointment.  Had 
he  been  content  to  wait  for  some  obscure  position  he 
might  have  gone  home  to  sleep  on  his  laurels.  But 
his  restless  spirit  saw  fresh  battle-fields  beckoning 
him  to  fresh  triumphs.  The  three  hundred  new- 
made  doctors  were  summoned  to  the  palace  to  write 
on  themes  assigned  by  the  Emperor,  that  His  Majesty 
might  select  a  score  of  them  for  places  in  the  Hanlin 
Academy.  Here  again  fortune  favoured  young  Chang; 
the  elegance  of  his  penmanship  and  his  skill  in  com- 


222  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

posing  mechanical  verse  were  so  remarkable  that  he 
secured  a  seat  on  the  literary  Olympus  of  the  Empire. 

His  conflicts  were  not  yet  ended.  A  conspicuous 
advantage  of  his  high  position  was  that  it  qualified 
him  as  a  candidate  for  membership  of  the  Board  of 
Censors.  Nor  did  fortune  desert  her  favourite  in  this 
instance.  After  writing  several  papers  to  show  his 
knowledge  of  law,  history,  and  politics,  he  came  forth 
clothed  with  powers  that  made  him  formidable  to  the 
highest  officers  of  the  state — powers  somewhat  anal- 
ogous to  the  combined  functions  of  censor  and  tribune 
in  ancient  Rome. 

Before  I  proceed  to  show  how  our  "knight  of  the 
longbow"  employed  his  new  authority,  a  few  words 
on  the  constitution  of  that  august  tribunal,  the  Board 
of  Censors,  may  prove  interesting  to  the  reader.  Its 
members  are  not  judges,  but  prosecuting  attorneys 
for  the  state.  They  are  accorded  a  freedom  of  speech 
which  extends  even  to  pointing  out  the  shortcomings 
of  majesty.  How  important  such  a  tribunal  for  a 
country  in  which  a  newspaper  press  with  its  argus 
eyes  has  as  yet  no  existence!  There  is  indeed  a  court 
Gazette,  which  has  been  called  the  oldest  newspaper 
in  the  world;  but  its  contents  are  strictly  limited 
to  decrees,  memorials,  and  appointments.  Free  dis- 
cussion and  general  news  have  no  place  in  its  columns; 
so  that  in  the  modern  sense  it  is  not  a  newspaper. 

The  court — even  the  occupant  of  the  Dragon 
Throne — needs  watch-dogs.  Such  is  the  theory;  but  as 
a  matter  of  fact  these  guardians  of  official  morals 
find  it  safer  to  occupy  themselves  with  the  aberrations 
of  satellites  than  to  discover  spots  on  the  sun.     About 


VICEROY  CHANG  223 

thirty  years  ago  one  of  them,  Wukotu,  resolved  to 
denounce  the  Empress  Dowager  for  having  adopted 
the  present  emperor  as  her  son  instead  of  making  him 
her  grandson.  He  accordingly  immolated  himself  at 
the  tomb  of  the  late  emperor  by  way  of  protesting 
against  the  impropriety  of  leaving  him  without  a  direct 
heir  to  worship  his  manes.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
the  Western  mind  is  capable  of  following  Wukotu's 
subtle  reasoning;  but  is  it  not  plain  that  he  felt  that  he 
was  provoking  an  ignominious  death,  and  chose  rather 
to  die  as  a  hero — the  champion  of  his  deceased  master? 

If  a  censor  succeeds  in  convicting  a  single  high 
functionary  of  gross  misconduct  his  fortune  is  made. 
He  is  rewarded  by  appointment  to  some  respectable 
post,  possibly  the  same  from  which  his  victim  has 
been  evicted.  Practical  advantage  carries  the  day 
against  abstract  notions  of  aesthetic  fitness.  Sublime 
it  might  be  to  see  the  guardians  of  the  common  weal 
striking  down  the  unworthy,  with  a  public  spirit  un- 
tainted by  self-interest;  but  in  China  (and  in  some 
other  countries)  such  machinery  requires  self-interest 
for  its  motive  force.  Wanting  that,  it  would  be  like 
a  windmill  without  wind,  merely  a  fine  object  in  the 
landscape. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  actual  procedure  take 
the  case  in  which  Chang  first  achieved  a  national  repu- 
tation. Chunghau,  a  Manchu  of  noble  family  and 
high  in  favour  at  court,  had  been  sent  to  Russia  in 
1880  to  demand  the  restoration  of  Hi,  a  province  of 
Chinese  Turkestan,  which  the  Russians  had  occupied 
on  pretext  of  quelling  its  chronic  disorders.  Scarcely 
had  he  reported  the  success  of  his  mission,  which  had 


2  24  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

resulted  in  recovering  two-thirds  of  the  disputed 
territory,  when  Chang  came  forward  and  denounced 
it  as  worse  than  a  failure.  He  had,  as  Chang  proved, 
permitted  the  Russians  to  retain  certain  strategic 
points,  and  had  given  them  fertile  districts  in  exchange 
for  rugged  mountains  or  arid  plains.  To  such  a  settle- 
ment no  envoy  could  be  induced  to  consent,  unless 
chargeable  with  corruption  or  incompetence. 

The  unlucky  envoy  was  thrown  into  prison  and 
condemned  to  death  (but  reprieved),  and  his  accuser 
rose  in  the  official  scale  as  rapidly  as  if  he  had  won  a 
great  battle  on  land  or  sea.  His  victory  was  not 
unlike  that  of  those  British  orators  who  made  a  reputa- 
tion out  of  the  impeachment  of  Lord  Clive  or  Warren 
Hastings,  save  that  with  him  a  trenchant  pen  took 
the  place  of  an  eloquent  tongue.  I  knew  Chunghau 
both  before  and  after  his  disgrace.  In  1859,  when 
an  American  embassy  for  the  first  time  entered  the 
gates  of  Peking,  it  was  Chunghau  who  was  appointed 
to  escort  the  minister  to  the  capital  and  back  again 
to  the  seacoast — a  pretty  long  journey  in  those  days 
when  there  was  neither  steamboat  nor  railway.  Dur- 
ing that  time,  acting  as  interpreter,  I  had  occasion 
to  see  him  every  day,  and  I  felt  strongly  attracted  by 
his  generous  and  gentlemanl}^  bearing.  The  poor 
fellow  came  out  of  prison  stripped  of  all  his  honours, 
and  with  his  prospects  blighted  forever.  In  a  few 
months  he  died  of  sheer  chagrin. 

The  war  with  Japan  in  1894- 1895  found  Chang 
established  in  the  viceroyalty  of  Hukwang,  two  prov- 
inces in  Central  China,  with  a  prosperous  population 
of  over  fifty  millions,  on  a  great  highway  of  internal 


VICEROY  CHANG 


^^51 


VICEROY  CHANG  225 

traffic  rivalling  the  Mississippi,  and  with  Hankow, 
the  hub  of  the  Empire,  for  its  commercial  centre. 
When  he  saw  the  Chinese  forces  scattered  like  chaff 
by  the  battalions  of  those  despised  islanders  he  was 
not  slow  to  grasp  the  explanation.  Kang  Yuwei,  a 
Canton  man,  also  grasped  it,  and  urged  on  the  Emperor 
the  necessity  for  reform  with  such  vigour  as  to  prompt 
him  to  issue  a  meteoric  shower  of  reformatory  edicts, 
filling  one  party  with  hope  and  the  other  with  dismay. 
Chang  had  held  office  at  Canton;  and  his  keen  in- 
tellect had  taken  in  the  changed  relations  of  West 
and  East.  He  perceived  that  a  new  sort  of  sunshine 
shed  its  beams  on  the  Western  world.  He  did  not 
fully  apprehend  the  spiritual  elements  of  our  civilisa- 
tion; but  he  saw  that  it  was  clothed  with  a  power 
unknown  to  the  sages  of  his  country,  the  forces  of 
nature  being  brought  into  subjection  through  science 
and  popular  education.  He  felt  that  China  must 
conform  to  the  new  order  of  things,  or  perish — even 
if  that  new  order  was  in  contradiction  to  her  ancient 
traditions  as  much  as  the  change  of  sunrise  to  the 
west.  He  saw  and  felt  that  knowledge  is  power, 
a  maxim  laid  down  by  Confucius  before  the  days  of 
Bacon;  and  he  set  about  inculcating  his  new  ideas 
by  issuing  a  series  of  lectures  for  the  instruction  of 
his  subordinates.  Collected  into  a  volume  under  the 
title  of  "Exhortations  to  Learn,"*  they  were  put  into 
the  hands  of  the  young  Emperor  and  by  his  com- 
mand distributed  among  the  viceroys  and  governors 
of  the  Empire. 


*  Translated  by  Dr.  Woodbridge  as  "  China's  Only  Hope."    Kelly  & 
Walsh,  Shanghai. 


226  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

What  a  harvest  might  have  sprung  from  the  sowing 
of  such  seed  in  such  soil  by  an  imperial  husbandman! 
But  there  were  some  who  viewed  it  as  the  sowing 
of  dragons'  teeth.  Those  reactionaries  induced  the 
Dowager  Empress  to  come  out  from  her  retirement 
and  to  reassume  her  abdicated  power  in  order  to  save 
the  Empire  from  a  threatening  conflagration.  It 
was  the  fable  of  Phaeton  enacted  in  real  life.  The 
young  charioteer  was  struck  down  and  the  sun  brought 
back  to  his  proper  course  instead  of  rising  in  the  west. 
The"  progressive  legislation  of  the  two  previous  years 
1897-98  was  repealed  and  then  followed  two  years  of 
a  narrow,  benighted  policy,  controlled  by  the  reaction- 
aries under  the  lead  of  Prince  Tuan,  father  of  the  heir- 
apparent,  with  a  junta  of  Manchu  princes  as  blind 
and  corrupt  as  Russian  grand  dukes.  That  disastrous 
recoil  resulted  in  war,  not  against  a  single  power, 
but  against  the  whole  civilised  world,  as  has  been 
set  forth  in  the  account  of  the  Boxer  War  (see 
page  172). 

Affairs  were  drifting  into  this  desperate  predicament 
when  Chang  of  the  Cavern  became  in  a  sense  the 
saviour  of  his  country.  This  he  effected  by  two 
actions  which  called  for  uncommon  intelligence  and 
moral  force:  (i)  By  assuring  the  British  Government 
that  he  would  at  all  costs  maintain  peace  in  Central 
China;  (2)  by  refusing  to  obey  an  inhuman  decree 
from  Peking,  commanding  the  viceroys  to  massacre 
all  foreigners  within  their  jurisdiction — a  decree  which 
would  be  incredible  were  it  not  known  that  at  the 
same  moment  the  walls  of  the  capital  were  placarded 
with  proclamations  offering  rewards  of  50,  30  and  20 


VICEROY  CHANG  227 

taels    respectively    for    the    heads    of    foreign    men, 
women,  and  children. 

It  is  barely  possible  that  Chang  was  helped  to  a 
decision  by  a  friendly  visit  from  a  British  man-of-war, 
whose  captain,  in  answer  to  a  question  about  his  artil- 
lery, informed  Chang  that  he  had  the  bearings  of  his 
official  residence,  and  could  drop  a  shell  'nto  it  with 
unerring  precision  at  a  distance  of  three  miles.  He 
was  also  aided  by  the  influence  of  Mr.  Eraser,  a  wide- 
awake British  consul.  Eraser  modestly  disclaims  any 
special  merit  in  the  matter,  but  British  missionaries 
at  Hankow  give  him  the  credit.  They  say  that, 
learning  from  them  the  state  of  feeling  among  the 
people,  he  induced  the  viceroy  to  take  prompt  measures 
to  prevent  an  outbreak.  At  one  time  a  Boxer  army 
from  the  south  was  about  to  cross  the  river  and  destroy 
the  foreign  settlement.  Chang,  when  appealed  to, 
frankly  confessed  that  his  troops  were  in  sympathy 
with  the  Boxers,  and  that  being  in  arrears  of  pay  they 
were  on  the  verge  of  revolt.  Eraser  found  him  the 
money  by  the  help  of  the  Hong  Kong  Bank;  the 
troops  were  paid;  and  the  Boxers  dispersed. 

The  same  problem  confronted  Liu,  the  viceroy  of 
Nanking;  and  it  was  solved  by  him  in  the  same  way. 
Both  viceroys  acted  in  concert;  but  to  which  belongs 
the  honour  of  that  wise  initiative  can  never  be  de- 
cided with  certainty.  The  foreign  consuls  at  Nan- 
king claim  it  for  Liu.  Mr.  Sundius,  now  British  consul 
at  Wuhu,  assures  me  that  as  Liu  read  the  barbarous 
decree  he  exclaimed,  "I  shall  repudiate  this  as  a 
forgery,"  adding  "I  shall  not  obey,  if  I  have  to 
die   for    it."       His   words   have   a  heroic   ring;   and 


228  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

suggest  that  his  policy  was  not  taken  at  second- 
hand. 

A  similar  claim  has  been  put  forward  for  Li  Hung 
Chang,  who  was  at  that  time  viceroy  at  Canton.  Is  it 
not  probable  that  the  same  view  of  the  situation 
flashed  on  the  minds  of  all  three  simultaneously? 
They  were  not,  like  the  Peking  princes,  ignorant  Tar- 
tars, but  Chinese  scholars  of  the  highest  type.  They 
could  not  fail  to  see  that  compliance  with  that  bloody 
edict  would  seal  their  own  doom  as  well  as  that  of  the 
Empire. 

Speaking  of  Chang,  Mr.  Eraser  says:  He  had  the 
wit  to  see  that  any  other  course  meant  ruin."  Chang 
certainly  does  not  hesitate  to  blow  his  own  trumpet; 
but  I  do  not  suspect  him  of  "drawing  the  longbow." 
Having  the  advantage  of  being  an  expert  rhymer,  he 
has  put  his  own  pretensions  into  verses  which  all  the 
school-children  in  a  population  of  fifty  millions  are 
obliged  to  commit  to  memory.  They  run  somewhat 
like   this: 

"In  Kengtse  (1900)  the  Boxer  robbers  went  mad, 
And  Peking  became  for  the  third  time  the  prey  of  fire  and 

sword ; 
But  the  banks  of  the  Great  River  and  the  province  of  Hupei 
Remained  in  tranquilHty." 

He  adds  in  a  tone  of  exultation: 

"The  province  of  Hupei  was  accordingly  exempted 
From  the  payment  of  an  indemnity  tax, 
And  allowed  to  spend  the  amount  thus  saved 
In  the  erection  of  schoolhouses." 

In  these  lines  there  is  not  much  poetry;  but  the  fact 
which  they  commemorate  adds  one  more  wreath  to 


VICEROY  CHANG  229 

a  brow  already  crowned  with  many  laurels,  showing 
how  much  the  viceroy's  heart  was  set  on  the  education 
of  his  people. 

In  the  interest  of  the  educational  movement,  I  was 
called  to  Chang's  assistance  in  1902.  The  Imperial 
University  was  destroyed  in  the  Boxer  War,  and, 
seeing  no  prospect  of  its  re  establishment  I  was  on  the 
way  to  my  home  in  America  when,  on  reaching 
Vancouver,  I  found  a  telegram  from  Viceroy  Chang, 
asking  me  to  be  president  of  a  university  which  he  pro- 
posed to  open,  and  to  instruct  his  junior  officials  in 
international  law.  I  engaged  for  three  years;  and 
I  now  look  back  on  my  recent  campaign  in  Central 
China  as  one  of  the  most  interesting  passages  in  a  life 
of  over  half  a  century  in  the  Far  East. 

Besides  instructing  his  mandarins  in  the  law  of 
nations,  I  had  to  give  them  some  notion  of  geography 
and  history,  the  two  coordinates  of  time  and  place, 
without  which  they  might,  like  some  of  their  writers, 
mistake  Rhode  Island  for  the  Island  of  Rhodes,  and 
Rome,  New  York,  for  the  City  of  the  Seven  Hills.  A 
book  on  the  Intercourse  of  Nations  and  a  translation  of 
Dudley  Field's  "International  Code,"  remain  as  tangible 
results  of  those  lectures.  But  the  university  failed  to 
materialise. 

Within  a  month  after  my  arrival  the  viceroy  was 
ordered  to  remove  to  Nanking  to  take  up  a  post  ren- 
dered vacant  by  the  death  of  his  eminent  colleague, 
Liu.  Calling  at  my  house  on  the  eve  of  embarking  he 
said,  "I  asked  you  to  come  here  to  be  president  of  a 
university  for  two  provinces.  If  you  will  go  with  me 
to  Nanking,  I  will  make  you  president  of  a  university 


230  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

for  five  provinces,"  meaning  that  he  would  combine  the 
educational  interests  of  the  two  viceroyalties,  and 
showing  how  the  university  scheme  had  expanded  in 
his  fertile  brain. 

Before  he  had  been  a  month  at  that  higher  post  he 
learned  to  his  intense  disappointment  that  he  was  only 
to  hold  the  place  for  another  appointee.  After  nearly 
a  year  at  Nanking,  he  was  summoned  to  Peking,  where 
he  spent  another  year  in  complete  uncertainty  as  to 
his  future  destination.  In  the  meantime  the  university 
existed  only  on  paper.  In  justice  to  the  viceroy  I  ought 
to  say  that  nothing  could  exceed  the  courtesy  and 
punctuality  with  which  he  discharged  his  obligations 
to  me.  The  despatch  which  once  a  month  brought 
me  my  stipend  was  always  addressed  to  me  as  president 
of  the  Wuchang  University,  though  as  a  matter  of  fact 
I  might  as  well  have  been  styled  president  of  the 
University  of  Weissnichtwo.  In  one  point  he  went 
beyond  his  agreement,  viz.,  in  giving  me  free  of  charge 
a  furnished  house  of  two  stories,  with  ten  rooms  and  a 
garden.  It  was  on  the  bank  of  the  "Great  River" 
with  the  picturesque  hills  of  Hanyang  nearly  opposite, 
a  site  which  I  preferred  to  any  other  in  the  city.  I 
there  enjoyed  the  purest  air  with  a  minimum  of  incon- 
venience from  narrow,  dirty  streets.  To  these  excep- 
tional advantages  it  is  doubtless  due  that  my  health 
held  out,  notwithstanding  the  heat  of  the  climate, 
which,  the  locality  being  far  inland  and  in  lat.  30°  30', 
was  that  of  a  fiery  furnace.  On  the  night  of  the  au- 
tumnal equinox,  my  first  in  Wuchang,  the  mercury 
stood  in  my  bedroom  at  102°.  I  was  the  guest 
of  the  Rev.  Arnold  Foster  of  the  London  Missionary 


VICEROY  CHANG  231 

Society,  whose  hospitality  was  warm  in  more  ways 
than  one. 

The  viceroy  returned  from  Peking,  broken  in  health; 
the  little  strength  he  had  left  was  given  to  military 
preparation  for  the  contingencies  of  the  Russo-Japanese 
War;  and  his  university  was  consigned  to  the  limbo  of 
forgotten  dreams. 

Viceroy  Chang  has  been  derided,  not  quite  justly, 
as  possessing  a  superabundance  of  initiative  along 
with  a  rather  scant  measure  of  finality,  taking  up  and 
throwing  down  his  new  schemes  as  a  child  does  its 
playthings.  In  these  enterprises  the  paucity  of  results 
was  due  to  the  shortcomings  of  the  agents  to  whom 
he  entrusted  their  management.  The  same  reproach 
and  the  same  apology  might  be  made  for  the  Empress 
Dowager  who,  like  the  Roman  Sybil,  commits  her 
progressive  decrees  to  the  mercy  of  the  winds  without 
seeming  to  care  what  becomes  of  them. 

Next  after  the  education  of  his  people  the  develop- 
ment of  their  material  resources  has  been  with  Chang 
a  leading  object.  To  this  end  he  has  opened  cotton- 
mills,  silk-filatures,  glass-works  and  iron-works,  all  on 
an  extensive  scale,  with  foreign  machinery  and  foreign 
experts.  For  miles  outside  of  the  gates  of  Wuchang 
the  banks  of  the  river  are  lined  with  these  vast  estab- 
lishments. Do  they  not  announce  more  clearly  than 
the  batteries  which  command  the  waterway  the  coming 
of  a  new  China?  Some  of  them  he  has  kept  going  at 
an  annual  loss.  The  cotton-mill,  for  example,  was 
standing  idle  when  I  arrived,  because  in  the  hands  of 
his  mandarins  he  could  not  make  it  pay  expenses.  A 
Canton  merchant  leased  it  on  easy  terms,  and  made  it 


232  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

such  a  conspicuous  success  that  he  is  now  growing 
rich.  It  is  an  axiom  in  China  that  no  manufacturing 
or  mercantile  enterprise  can  be  profitably  conducted 
by  a  deputation  of  mandarins. 

Chang  is  rapidly  changing  the  aspect  of  his  capital 
by  erecting  in  all  parts  of  it  handsome  school-buildings 
in  foreign  style,  literally  proclaiming  from  the  house- 
tops his  gospel  of  education.  The  youth  in  these 
schools  are  mostly  clad  in  foreign  dress;  his  street 
police  and  the  soldiers  in  his  barracks  are  all  in  foreign 
uniform;  and  many  of  the  latter  have  cut  off  their 
cues  as  a  sign  of  breaking  with  the  old  regime.  In 
talking  with  their  officers  I  applauded  the  prudence  of 
the  measure  as  making  them  less  liable  to  be  captured 
while  running  away. 

Chang's  soldiers  are  taught  to  march  to  the  cadence 
of  his  own  war-songs — which,  though  lacking  the  fire 
of  Tyrtaeus  or  Korner,  are  not  ill-suited  to  arouse 
patriotic  sentiment.     Take  these  lines  as  a  sample: 

"Foreigners  laugh  at  our  impotence, 
And  talk  of  dividing  our  country  like  a  watermelon, 
But  are  we  not  400  million  strong? 
If  we  of  the  Yellow  Race  only  stand  together, 
What  foreign  power  will  dare  to  molest  us? 
Just  look  at  India,  great  in  extent 
But  sunk  in  hopeless  bondage. 
Look,  too,  at  the  Jews,  famous  in  ancient  times, 
Now  scattered  on  the  face  of  the  earth. 
Then  look  at  Japan  with  her  three  small  islands. 
Think  how  she  got  the  better  of  this  great  nation, 
And  won  the  admiration  of  the  world. 
What  I  admire  in  the  Japanese 
Is  not  their  skill  in  using  ship  or  gun 
But  their  single-hearted  love  of  country." 


VICEROY  CHANG  233 

Viceroy  Chang's  mode  of  dealing  with  his  own  malady 
might  be  taken  as  a  picture  of  the  shifting  policy  of  a 
half-enlightened  country. 

The  first  doctor  he  consulted  was  a  Chinese  of  the 
old  school.     Besides  administering  pills  composed  of 

"  Eye  of  newt,  and  toe  of  frog, 
Wool  of  bat,  and  tongue  of  dog," 

the  doctor  suggested  that  one  thing  was  still  required 
to  put  the  patient  in  harmony  with  the  course  of 
Nature.  Pointing  to  a  fine  chain  of  hills  that  stretches 
in  a  waving  line  across  the  wide  city,  he  said:  "The 
root  of  your  trouble  lies  there.  That  carriage-road 
that  you  have  opened  has  wounded  the  spinal  column 
of  the  serpent.  Restore  the  hill  to  its  former  condition 
and  you  will  soon  get  well." 

The  viceroy  filled  the  gap  incontinently,  but  found 
himself  no  better.  He  then  sent  for  English  and 
American  doctors — dismissing  them  in  turn  to  make 
way  for  a  Japanese  who  had  him  in  charge  when  I 
left  Wuchang  last  summer.  For  a  paragon  of  intelli- 
gence and  courage,  how  pitiful  this  relapse  into  super- 
stition! Did  not  China  after  a  trial  of  European  meth- 
ods also  relapse  during  the  Boxer  craze  into  her  old 
superstitions?  And  is  she  not  at  this  moment  taking 
the  medicine  of  Japan?  To  Japan  she  looks  for 
guidance  in  the  conduct  of  her  public  schools  as  well 
as  for  the  training  of  her  army  and  navy.  To  Japan 
she  is  sending  her  sons  and  daughters  in  growing  num- 
bers. No  fewer  than  eight  thousand  of  her  young 
men,  and,  what  is  more  significant,  one  or  two  hundred 
of  her  young  women  from  the  best  families  are  now  in 
those  islands  inhaling  the  breath  of  a  new  life. 


234  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

Some  writers  have  sounded  a  note  of  alarm  in  con- 
sequence of  this  wholesale  surrender  on  the  part  of 
China.  But  for  my  part  I  have  no  fear  of  any  sinister 
tendency  in  the  teachings  of  Japan,  whether  political 
or  educational.  On  a  memorable  occasion  eight  years 
ago,  when  Marquis  Ito  was  entertained  at  a  banquet 
in  Peking  by  the  governor  of  the  city  and  the  chancellor 
of  the  Imperial  University,  I  congratulated  him  on 
the  fact  that  "Japan  exerts  a  stronger  influence  on 
China  than  any  Western  power — just  as  the  moon  raises 
a  higher  tide  than  the  more  distant  sun" — implying, 
what  the  Japanese  are  ready  enough  to  admit,  that 
their  country  shines  by  borrowed  light. 

After  all,  the  renovating  effect,  for  which  I  look  to 
them,  will  not  come  so  much  from  their  teaching  as 
from  their  example.  "What  is  to  hinder  us  from 
doing  what  those  islanders  have  done?"  is  an  argu- 
ment oft  reiterated  by  Viceroy  Chang  in  his  appeals 
to  his  drowsy  countrymen.  It  was,  as  I  have  said, 
largely  under  his  influence  that  the  Emperor  was  led 
to  adopt  a  new  educational  programme  eight  years 
ago.  Nor  can  there  be  a  doubt  that  by  his  influence 
more  than  that  of  any  other  man,  the  Empress  Dow- 
ager has  been  induced  to  reenact  and  to  enlarge  that 
programme. 

To  show  what  is  going  on  at  this  very  moment :  On 
September  3,  1905,  an  edict  was  issued  "abolishing 
the  literary  competitive  examinations  of  the  old 
style,"  and  ordering  that  "  hereafter  exclusive  attention 
shall  be  given  to  the  establishment  of  schools  of  mod- 
em learning  throughout  the  Empire  in  lieu  thereof." 
The    next    day   a    supplementary    decree    ordained 


VICEROY  CHANG  235 

that  the  provincial  chancellors  or  examiners  who, 
like  Othello,  found  their  occupation  gone,  should  have 
the  duty  of  examining  and  inspecting  the  schools  in 
their  several  provinces;  and,  to  give  the  new  ar- 
rangement greater  weight,  it  was  required  that  they 
"discharge  this  duty  in  conjunction  with  the  viceroy 
or  governor  of  the  province." 

An  item  of  news  that  comes  along  with  these  decrees 
seems  to  indicate  that  a  hitherto  frivolous  court  has 
at  length  become  thoroughly  in  earnest  on  the  subject 
of  education.  A  sum  of  300,000  taels  appears  in  the 
national  budget  as  the  annual  expense  of  a  theatrical 
troupe  in  attendance  on  the  Court.  At  the  instance 
of  two  ministers  (Viceroy  Yuan  and  General  Tieliang) 
Her  Majesty  reduces  this  to  one-third  of  that  amount, 
ordering  that  theatricals  shall  be  performed  twice 
a  week  instead  of  daily;  and  that  the  200,000  taels 
thus  economised  shall  be  set  apart  for  the  use  of  schools. 
How  much  this  resembles  the  policy  ox  Viceroy  Chang 
who,  exempted  from  raising  a  war  indemnity,  set 
apart  an  equal  amount  for  the  building  of  schoolhouses ! 
An  empire  that  builds  schoolhouses  is  more  certain 
to  make  a  figure  in  the  world  than  one  that  spends  its 
money  on  batteries  and  forts. 

In  addition  to  adopting  the  new  education  there  are 
three  items  which  Chang  proclaims  as  essential  to  a 
renovation  of  Chinese  society.  In  the  little  book, 
already  cited,  he  says: 

"The  first  step  in  reform  is  to  throw  away  yotir  opium  pipes, 
The  second  is  to  unbind  the  feet  of  your  women, 
The  third  is  to  abandon  the  folHes  of  Ftmgshui. 
Opium  makes  our  soldiers  weak; 


236  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

The  crippling  of  women  makes  their  offspring  weak ; 

The  superstition  of  Fungshui  prevents  the  opening  of  mines, 

And  keeps  China  poor." 

How  could  the  man  who  wrote  this  fall  back  into 
the  folly  of  Fungshui  f  Is  it  not  possible  that  he 
closed  that  new  road  in  deference  to  the  superstitions 
of  his  people?  In  either  case  it  would  be  a  deplorable 
weakness;  but  his  country,  thanks  to  his  efforts,  is 
now  fully  committed  to  progress.  She  moves,  how- 
ever, in  that  direction  much  as  her  noble  rivers  move 
toward  the  sea — with  many  a  backward  bend,  many 
a  refluent  eddy. 

POSTSCRIPT  NO.    I 

In  taking  leave  of  this  eminent  man,  who  represents 
the  best  class  of  his  countrymen,  there  are  two  or 
three  incidents,  which  I  mention  by  way  of  supple- 
ment. In  his  telegram  to  Vancouver,  besides  en- 
gaging me  to  assume  the  office  of  president  of  the 
proposed  university,  he  asked  me  to  act  as  his  legal 
and  political  adviser.  In  the  agreement  formally 
made  through  the  consul  in  New  York,  in  place  of 
these  last-named  functions  was  substituted  the  duty 
of  instructing  his  junior  mandarins  in  international 
law.  The  reason  assigned  for  the  change  was  that 
the  Peking  Government  declined  to  allow  any  for- 
eigner to  hold  the  post  of  adviser.  The  objection  was 
represented  as  resting  on  general  policy,  not  on  per- 
sonal grounds.  If,  however,  the  Peking  officials  had 
read  my  book  on  the  Siege,  in  which  I  denounce 
the  treachery  of  Manchu  government  and  favour  the 


VICEROY  CHANG  237 

position  of  China,  it  is  quite  conceivable  that  their 
objection  might  have  a  tinge  of  personaUty. 

When  Viceroy  Chang  was  starting  for  Peking,  I 
called  to  see  him  on  board  his  steamer.  He  held  in 
his  hand  a  printed  report  of  my  opening  lecture  at 
the  beginning  of  a  new  term,  and  expressed  regret 
that  in  the  hurry  of  departure  he  had  been  unable  to 
find  time  to  attend  in  person.  On  that  occasion 
(the  previous  day)  several  of  his  higher  officials, 
including  the  treasurer,  judge,  and  prefect,  after  giv- 
ing me  tiffin  at  the  Mandarin  Institute,  brought  sixty 
junior  officials  to  make  their  salaam  to  their  instructor. 
This  ceremony  performed,  I  bowed  to  Their  Excel- 
lencies, and  requested  them  to  leave  me  with  my  students. 
"  No, "  they  replied, ' '  we  too  are  desirous  of  hearing  you' ' ; 
and  they  took  seats  in  front  of  the  platform. 

Viceroy  Chang  seems  to  have  manifested  some 
jealousy  of  Sir  Robert  Hart,  in  criticising  the  Inspector- 
General's  proposal  for  a  single  tax.  He  likewise 
criticised  unfavourably  the  scheme  of  Professor  Jenckes 
for  unifying  the  currency  of  the  Empire — influenced, 
perhaps,  by  the  fear  that  such  an  innovation  might 
impair  the  usefulness  of  a  costly  plant  which  he  has 
recently  erected  for  minting  both  silver  and  copper 
coin.  For  the  same  reason  perhaps  he  objects,  as 
I  hear  he  does,  to  the  proposed  engagement  of  a  Cornell 
professor  by  the  Board  of  Revenue  in  the  capacity 
of  financial  adviser. 

With  all  his  foibles,  however,  he  is  a  true  patriot; 
and  his  influence  has  done  much  to  move  China  in 
the  right  direction.  O  for  more  men  like  Chang,  the 
"  Longbow  of  the  Cavern! " 


238  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

I  append  a  weighty  document  that  is  not  the  less 
interesting  for  being  somewhat  veiled  in  mystery. 
I  regret  that  I  am  not  at  liberty  to  disclose  its  author- 
ship. The  report  is  to  be  taken  as  anonymous, 
being  an  unpublished  document  of  the  secret  service. 
To  the  reader  it  is  left  to  divine  the  nationality  and 
personality  of  its  author.  Valuable  for  the  light  it 
throws  on  a  great  character  in  a  trying  situation,  the 
report  gains  piquancy  and  interest  from  the  fact  that 
the  veil  of  official  secrecy  has  to  be  treated  with  due 
respect.  My  unnamed  friend  has  my  thanks  and 
deserves  those  of  my  readers. 

OFFICIAL   INTERVIEWS    WITH   VICEROY   CHANG 
DURING   THE    CRISIS    OF    1900 

"At  OUT  interview  of  17th  June,  described  at  length  in  my 
despatch  to  you  of  i8th  June,  the  Viceroy  explained  his  deter- 
mination to  maintain  order  and  to  afford  the  protection  due 
under  treaty;  he  also  emphasised  his  desire  to  be  on  friendly 
terms  with  England. 

"Early  in  June,  the  three  cities  of  Wuchang,  Hanyang  and 
Hankow  had  been  full  of  rumours  of  the  kidnapping  of  children 
and  even  grown  persons  by  means  of  hypnotism;  and  though 
a  concise  notification  by  the  Viceroy,  that  persons  spreading 
such  tales  would  be  executed,  checked  its  prevalence  here,  the 
scare  spread  to  the  country  districts  and  inflamed  the  minds 
of  the  people  against  foreigners  and,  in  consequence,  against 
converts  and  missions. 

"On  the  25th  June,  the  Viceroy,  as  reported  in  a  separate 
despatch  of  28th  June,  to  Lord  Salisbury,  sent  a  special  envoy 
to  assure  me  that  H.  E.  would  not  accept  or  act  upon  any  anti- 
foreign  decrees  from  Peking.  At  the  same  time  he  communi- 
cated copy  of  a  telegraphic  memorial  from  himself  and  seven 
other  high  provincial  officers  insisting  on  the  suppression  of  the 


VICEROY  CHANG  239 

Boxers  and  the  maintenance  of  peace.  This  advice  H.  E.  gave 
me  to  understand  led  to  the  recall  of  Li  Hung  Chang  to  the  north 
as  negotiator. 

"Distorted  accounts  of  the  capture  of  the  Taku  forts  and 
the  hostilities  of  the  north  caused  some  excitement,  but  the 
Viceroy's  proclamation  of  2nd  July,  copy  of  which  was  forwarded 
in  my  despatch  of  3rd  July  to  the  Foreign  Office,  and  the  vigorous 
police  measures  taken  by  His  Excellency  soon  restored  calm 
v/hich,  despite  occasional  rumours,  continued  until  the  recent 
plot  and  scare  reported  in  my  despatch  to  you  of  23rd  of  August. 
In  the  same  despatch  I  described  how,  in  compliance  with  my 
wish,  H.  E.  took  the  unprecedented  step  of  tearing  down  his 
proclamation  embodying  an  Imperial  Decree  which  had  been 
taken  to  imply  license  to  harry  converts.  To  foreigners  during 
the  past  two  months  the  question  of  interest  has  been  whether 
the  Viceroy  could  and  would  keep  his  troops  in  order.  The 
Viceroy  himself  seemed  to  be  in  some  doubt  until  the  return 
of  his  trusted  officers,  who  were  attending  the  Japanese  man- 
oeuvres when  the  northern  troubles  began.  Every  now  and 
then  reports  of  disaffection  have  been  industriously  circu- 
lated, but  the  drilled  troops  have  never  shown  any  sign  of 
disloyalty. 

"A  point  of  H.  E.'s  policy  which  has  caused  considerable 
suspicion  is  the  despatch  of  troops  northward,  At  the  end  of 
June  some  2,000  or  3,000  men  passed  through  Hankow  bound 
for  Nyanking  where  the  Governor  was  said  to  want  a  body-guard. 
They  were  unarmed  and  did  no  mischief  beyond  invading  the 
Customs  and  China  Merchants'  Steam  Navigation  Company's 
premises.  During  July  some  5,000  troops,  of  whom  perhaps 
half  were  drilled  men,  went  from  Hukeang  provinces  overland 
to  Honan  and  on  to  Chihli.  They  were  led  by  the  an ti -foreign 
Treasurer  of  Hunan;  and  their  despatch  was  explained  by  the 
constitutional  duty  of  succouring  the  Emperor.  Since  July 
I  have  not  heard  of  any  further  detachments  leaving,  though 
it  was  said  that  the  total  would  reach  10,000.  Possibly  the 
Viceroy  sent  the  men  because  he  did  not  feel  strong  enough  to 
defy  Peking  altogether,  because  failure  to  help  the  coiu"t  would 


240  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

have  excited  popular  reprobation,  and  also  in  order  to  get  rid 
of  a  considerable  part  of  the  dangerous  'loafer'  class. 

"About  the  20th  July  there  was  a  persistent  report  that  the 
Viceroy  was  secretly  placing  guns  on  the  opposite  banks  of  the 
river.  The  German  military  instructors  assured  me  that  the 
report  was  baseless;  and  Lieutenant  Brandon,  H.  M.  S.  Pique, 
thoroughly  searched  the  bank  for  a  distance  of  three  miles  in 
length  and  breadth,  without  discovering  a  trace  of  a  cannon. 
The  only  guns  in  position  are  the  two  5 -inch  Armstrong  M.  L. 
within  the  walls  of  Wuchang,  and  they  have  been  there  for  a  long 
time  and  are  used  'merely  for  training  purposes.' 

"  So  early  as  our  interview  of  June  1 7th,  the  Viceroy  expressed 
anxiety  as  to  missionaries  at  remote  points  in  the  interior ;  and 
I  had  about  that  time  suggested  to  the  various  missions  that 
women  and  children  would  be  better  at  a  treaty  port.  The 
missions  themselves  preferred  to  recall  all  their  members,  and  at 
the  Viceroy's  request  supplied  lists  of  the  stations  thus  left  to 
the  care  of  the  local  authorities.  Since  then,  even  in  Hupeh, 
there  have  been  a  few  cases  of  plundering,  especially  in  the  large 
district  of  Sin  Chan  on  the  Hunan  border,  while  at  Hangchow- 
fu,  in  Hunan,  the  London  Mission  premises  were  wrecked  early 
in  July  and  for  a  time  throughout  the  whole  province  it  ap- 
peared probable  that  the  Missions  would  be  destroyed.  The 
chief  cause  of  this,  as  of  the  riots  in  Hupeh,  was  the  dissemination 
of  an  alleged  decree  of  26th  June  praising  the  Boxers  and  order- 
ing the  authorities  to  imitate  the  north  in  exterminating 
foreigners.  This  decree  seems  to  have  reached  local  authorities 
direct;  and  those  hostile  to  foreigners  acted  upon  it  or  let  its 
existence  be  known  to  the  gentry  and  people.  The  chapels  in 
Hunan  were  all  sealed  up ;  and  it  was  understood  that  all  mission 
and  convert  property  would  be  confiscated.  Towards  the  end 
of  July,  however,  the  Viceroy  and  the  Hunan  Governor  issued  a 
satisfactory  proclamation ,  and  I  have  heard  no  more  complaints 
from  that  province,  the  western  part  of  which  seems  tranquil. 

"Besides  safeguarding  foreign  life  and  property  in  his  own 
province  the  Viceroy  has  frequently  been  asked  to  aid  mission- 
aries retiring  from  Kansuh,  Shensi,  Shansi,   and    Honan.      In 


VICEROY  CHANG  241 

every  case  H.  E.  has  readily  consented.  Detailed  telegrams 
have  been  sent  again  and  again  not  only  to  his  frontier  officers, 
but  to  the  governors  of  other  provinces  with  whom  H.  E.  has 
expostulated,  when  necessary,  in  strong  terms.  Thus,  when 
Honan  seemed  likely  to  turn  against  us,  the  Viceroy  insisted  on 
the  publication  of  favourable  decrees,  and  even  went  so  far  as 
to  send  his  men  to  establish  a  permanent  escort  depot  at  Ching 
Tzu  Kuan,  an  important  post  in  Honan  where  travellers  from  the 
north  and  northwest  have  to  change  from  cart  to  boat.  Happily 
the  acting  Governor  of  Shensi  has  cooperated  nobly.  But  the 
refugees  who  testify  invariably  to  the  marvellous  feeling  of 
security  engendered  by  reaching  Hupeh,  will,  I  doubt  not,  agree 
that  they  owe  their  lives  to  Chang  Chi-tung's  efforts;  for  simple 
inaction  on  his  part  would  have  encouraged  the  many  hostile 
officers  to  treat  them  as  Shansi  has  treated  its  missionaries. 

"At  times  during  the  past  two  anxious  months  the  Viceroy's 
action  in  sending  troops  north,  the  occurrence  of  riots  at  various 
'points,  H.  E.'s  communication  of  decrees  in  which  the  Peking 
Government  sought  to  gloss  over  the  northern  uprising,  and  his 
eagerness  to  make  out  that  the  Empress  Dowager  had  not  in- 
cited the  outbreak  and  had  no  hostile  feeling  against  foreigners 
have  inevitably  made  one  uneasy.  But  on  looking  back  one 
appreciates  the  skill  and  constancy  with  which  H.  E.  has  met 
a  most  serious  crisis  and  done  his  duty  to  Chinese  and  foreigners 
alike.  It  is  no  small  thing  for  a  Chinese  statesman  and  scholar 
to  risk  popularity,  position,  and  even  life  in  a  far-seeing  resistance 
to  the  apparent  decrees  of  a  court  to  which  his  whole  training 
enforces  blind  loyalty  and  obedience.  His  desire  to  secure  the 
personal  safety  of  the  Empress  Dowager  on  account  of  her  long 
services  to  the  Empire  is  natural  enough ;  nor  need  he  be  blamed 
for  supplying  some  military  aid  to  his  sovereign,  even  though 
he  may  have  guessed  that  it  would  be  used  against  those  foreign 
nations  with  whom  he  himself  steadfastly  maintains  friendship 
and  against  whose  possible  attack  he  has  not  mounted  an  extra 
giin." 


242  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

POSTSCRIPT  NO.  2 
TUAN   FANG   OF   THE   HIGH    COMMISSION 

During  Chang's  long  absence,  Tuan  Fang,  Governor 
of  Hupeh,  held  the  seals  and  exercised  the  functions  of 
viceroy.  He  was  a  Manchu — one  of  those  specimens, 
admirable  but  not  rare,  who,  in  acquiring  the  refine- 
ment of  Chinese  culture,  lose  nothing  of  the  vigour 
of  their  own  race.  "Of  their  own  race,"  I  say,  be- 
cause in 'language  and  habits  the  Manchus  are  strongly 
differentiated  from  their  Chinese  subjects. 

In  the  Boxer  War  Governor  Tuan  established  an 
excellent  record.  Acting  as  governor  in  Shensi,  in- 
stead of  killing  missionaries,  as  did  the  Manchu  gover- 
nor of  the  next  province,  he  protected  them  effectually 
and  sent  them  safely  to  Hankow.  One  day  when 
I  was  at  his  house  a  missionary  came  to  thank  him 
for  kindness  shown  on  that  occasion. 

Mentioning  one  of  my  books  I  once  asked  him  if 
he  had  read  it.  "  You  never  wrote  a  book  that  I  have 
not  read,"  was  his  emphatic  reply.  He  was  a  pretty 
frequent  visitor  at  my  house,  punctually  returning 
all  my  calls;  and  when  he  was  transferred  to  the 
governorship  of  Hunan  he  appeared  pleased  to  have 
the  Yale  Mission  commended  to  his  patronage.  He 
has  a  son  at  school  in  the  United  States;  and  his  wife 
and  daughters  have  taken  lessons  in  English  from 
ladies  of  the  American  Episcopal  Mission. 

Governor  Tuan  (now  viceroy)  is  a  leading  member 
of  a  commission  recently  sent  abroad  to  study  and 
report  on  the  institutions  of  the  Western  world.     Its 


\ 


/ 


\ 


/ 


TUAN  FANG,  VICEROY  OF  NANKING 


VICEROY  CHANG  243 

departure  was  delayed  by  the  explosion  of  a  bomb  in 
one  of  the  carriages  just  as  the  commission  was  leaving 
Peking.  The  would-be  assassin  was  "hoist  with  his 
own  petard,"  leaving  the  public  m^^stified  as  to  the 
motive  of  the  outraee. 


CHAPTER  XXXI 

ANTI-FOREIGN  AGITATION 

American  Influence  in  the  Far  East — Officials  and  the 
Boycott — Interview  with  President  Roosevelt — Riot 
in  a  British  Concession — Ex-territoriality — Two 
Ways  to  an  End — A  Grave  Mistake — The  Nan-chang 
Tragedy — Dangers  from  Superstition 

SO  FAR  from  being  new,  an  anti-foreign  spirit  is 
the  normal  state  of  the  Chinese  mind.  Yet 
during  the  year  past  it  has  taken  on  new  forms,  directed 
itself  against  new  objects,  and  employed  new  methods. 
It  deserves  therefore  a  conspicuous  place  among  the 
new  developments  in  the  China  of  the  twentieth  century. 
Where  everything  is  changing,  the  temper  of  the 
people  has  undergone  a  change.  They  have  become 
restless  as  the  sea  and  fickle  as  a  weather-vane.  The 
friends  of  yesterday  are  the  enemies  of  to-day;  and 
a  slight  or  petty  annoyance  is  enough  to  make  them 
transfer  man  or  country  from  one  to  the  other  category. 
Murderous  outbreaks,  rare  in  the  past,  have  now  be- 
come alarmingly  frequent,  so  much  so  that  the  last 
year  might  be  described  as  a  year  of  anti-foreign  riots. 
The  past  nine  months  have  witnessed  four  such  out- 
breaks. In  four  widely  separated  provinces,  venting 
their  fury  pretty  impartially  on  people  of  four  national- 
ities and  of  all  professions,  they  were  actuated  by  a 

344 


ANTI-FOREIGN  AGITATION  245 

common  hate  and  indicated  a  common  purpose. 
That  purpose — if  they  had  a  purpose — was  to  compel 
a  readjustment  of  treaty  relations. 

America  has  the  distinction  of  being  the  target  for 
the  first  assaults.  In  treating  the  subject  I  accordingly 
begin  with  America  and  the  boycott,  as  set  forth  in 
a  long  extract  from  an  address  before  the  Publishers' 
League  of  New  York,  November  8,  1905,  on 

AMERICAN    INFLUENCE    IN    THE    FAR    EAST 

"Mr.  President  and  Gentlemen: 

"If  I  were  asked  to  find  a  pou  sto,  a  fulcrum,  on  which  to  erect 
a  machine  to  move  the  world,  I  should  choose  this  league  of 
publishers;  and  the  machine  would  be  no  other  than  the  power 
press!  I  have  accepted  your  invitation  not  merely  from  pleasant 
recollections  of  your  former  hospitality,  but  because  new  occur- 
rences have  taken  place  which  appeal  to  the  patriotism  of  every 
good  citizen.  They  are  issues  that  rise  above  party;  they 
involve  our  national  character  and  the  well-being  of  another 
people  whom  we  owe  the  sacred  duties  of  justice  and  humanity. 

"When  I  agreed  to  speak  to  you  of  American  influence  in 
the  Far  East,  I  was  not  aware  that  we  should  have  with  us  a 
representative  of  Japan,  and  I  expected  to  spread  myself  thinly 
over  two  empires.  Happy  I  am  to  resign  one  of  these  empires 
to  Mr.  Stevens. 

"  I  shall  accordingly  say  no  more  about  Japan  than  to  advert 
to  the  fact  that  the  wise  forbearance  of  Commodore  Perry, 
which,  in  1854,  induced  the  Shogun  to  open  his  ports  without 
firing  a  gun,  has  won  the  gratitude  of  the  Japanese  people;  so 
that  in  many  ways  they  testify  a  preference  for  us  and  our 
country.  For  instance,  they  call  the  English  language 
'Americano,'  etc.  They  were  disappointed  that  their  claims 
against  Russia  were  not  backed  up  by  the  United  States.  That, 
however,  caused  only  a  momentary  cloud.  Beyond  this,  nothing 
has  ever  occurred  to  mar  the  harmony  of  the  two  peoples  who 


246  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

face  each  other  on  the  shores  of  the  Pacific.  Perry's  wise 
initiative  was  followed  by  the  equal  wisdom  of  Townsend  Harris, 
who,  before  any  other  consul  or  minister  had  arrived,  was 
invited    to  Yeddo  to  give    advice  to  the  government    of  the 

Shogun. 

"American  influence  thus  inaugurated  has  been  fostered  by 
a  noble  army  of  ministers,  consuls,  and  missionaries.  The 
total  absence  of  massacres  and  murders*  makes  the  history 
of  our  intercourse  with  Japan  tame  in  contrast  with  the  tragic 
story  from  China.     It  speaks  the  reign  of  law. 

"My  acquaintance  with  Japan  dates  back  forty-six  years; 
and  in  the  meantime  I  have  had  pleasant  relations  with  most 
of  the  ministers  she  has  sent  to  China.  One  of  her  officials 
recently  gave  me  a  beautiful  scarf-pin  that  speaks  volumes  for 
American  influence,  showing  as  it  does  the  two  flags  in  friendly 
union  on  one   flagstaff.      I  gave  him  in  return  the  following 

lines : 

'"To  sun  and  stars  divided  sway! 
Remote  but  kindred  suns  are  they, 
In  friendly  concord  here  they  twine 
To  form  a  new  celestial  sign. 

"  'Thou,  Orient  sun,  still  higher  rise 
To  fill  with  Hght  the  Eastern  skies! 
And  you,  ye  stars  and  stripes,  unfurled 
Shed  glory  on  the  Western  world! 

'"Our  starry  flag  first  woke  the  dawn 
In  the  empire  of  the  Rising  Sun. 
May  no  ill  chance  e'er  break  the  tie. 
And  so  we  shout  our  loud  banzai!' 

"  I  now  turn  to  the  less  cheering  theme  of  American  influence 
in  China.     It  reminds  me  of  the  naturalist  who  took  for  the 


*  The  only  missionary  killed  in  the  last  fifty  years  was  stabbed  while 
grappling  with  a  burglar. 


ANTI-FOREIGN  AGITATION  247 

heading  of  a  chapter  'Snakes  in  Iceland,'  and  whose  entire  chap- 
ter consisted  of  the  words  'There  are  no  snakes  in  Iceland.' 
Though  formerly  blazing  like  a  constellation  in  the  Milky  Way, 
American  influence  has  vanished  so  completely  that  you  can 
hardly  see  it  with  a  microscope.  What  influence  can  we  presume 
on  when  our  commodities  are  shut  out,  not  by  legislative  action 
but  as  a  result  of  popular  resentment? 

THE     BOYCOTT 

"True,  the  latest  advices  are  to  the  effect  that  the  boycott 
has  broken  down.  I  foresaw  and  foretold  more  than  two  months 
ago  that  it  could  not  in  the  nature  of  the  case  be  of  long  duration, 
that  it  was  a  mere  ballon  d'essai — an  encouraging  proof  that 
Orientals  are  learning  to  apply  our  methods.  But  is  there  not 
a  deplorable  difference  between  the  conditions  under  which  it 
is  used  in  the  two  countries?  In  one  the  people  all  read,  and 
the  newspaper  is  in  everybody's  hand.  The  moment  a  strike  or 
boycott  is  declared  off  all  hands  fall  into  their  places  and  things 
go  on  as  usual.  In  the  other  the  readers  are  less  than 
one  in  twenty.  Newspapers,  away  from  the  open  ports,  are 
scarcely  known,  or  if  they  exist  they  are  subject  to  the  tyranny 
of  the  mandarins  or  the  terrorism  of  the  mob.  Hence  a  war 
may  be  waged  in  one  province  and  people  in  another  may  scarcely 
hear  of  it.  Chevaux-de-frise  may  bar  out  goods  from  one  port, 
while  they  are  more  or  less  openly  admitted  in  other  ports. 
Not  only  so,  the  hostile  feeling  engendered  by  such  conflict  of 
interest  is  not  dissipated  by  sunshine,  but  rankles  and  spreads 
like  an  epidemic  over  vast  regions  unenlightened  by  newspapers 
or  by  contact  with  foreign   commerce. 

"Witness  the  massacre  of  American  missionaries  at  Lienchow 
in  the  Canton  province.  I  am  not  going  to  enter  into  the  de- 
tails of  that  shocking  atrocity,  nor  to  dwell  on  it  further  than 
to  point  out  that  although  the  boycott  was  ended  on  September 
14,  the  people  in  that  district  were  in  such  a  state  of  exas- 
peration that  the  missionaries  felt  themselves  in  danger  fourteen 
days  after  that  date.  In  the  New  York  Sun  of  November  5  I 
find  part  of  a  letter  from  one  of  the  victims,  the  Reverend  Mr, 


248  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

Peale,  written  exactly  one  month  before  the  tragedy.     Allow 
me  to  read  it  along  with  an  introductory  paragraph. 

"  'Princeton,  N.  J.,  Nov.  4. — A.  Lee  Wilson,  a  student  in  the 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary,  received  a  letter  a  few  days  ago 
from  John  R.  Peale,  the  missionary  who,  with  his  wife,  was 
killed  in  Lienchow,  China,  on  October  28.  The  letter  was  dated 
September  28,  and  reached  America  at  the  time  that  Peale  and 
his  wife  were  murdered.  It  gives  a  clue  to  the  troubles  which 
led  to  the  death  of  Peale.     The  letter  says  in  part: 

"  '  "The  interest  in  the  boycott  is  vital  to  the  missionaries. 
Heretofore  the  Americans  always  enjoyed  special  favour,  and 
to  fly  the  American  flag  meant  protection ;  but  it  is  different 
now.  No  personal  violence  has  been  attempted, but  the  people 
are  less  cordial  and  more  suspicious.  People  in  China  are  not 
asking  that  their  coolies  be  allowed  entrance  into  the  States,  but 
they  only  ask  that  the  Americans  cease  treating  the  Chinese 
with  contempt  and  allow  their  merchants  and  students  the 
same  privileges  that  other  foreigners  receive." 

"  'Peale  graduated  from  the  Princeton  Theological  Seminary 
last  May. 

"Is  it  not  evident  that  whatever  spark  caused  the  ex- 
plosion, the  nitro-glycerin  that  made  it  possible  came  from 
the  boycott? 

"Not  only  do  they  boycott  ponderables  such  as  figure  at  the 
custom-house,  but  they  extend  the  taboo  to  things  of  the  head 
and  heart.  The  leader  of  the  whole  movement  was  formerly  an 
active  supporter  of  the  International  Institute,  an  institution 
which  proposes  to  open  gratuitous  courses  of  lectures  and  to 
place  Chinese  men  of  intelligence  on  common  ground  with 
scholars  of  the  West.  He  now  opposes  the  International  In- 
stitute because,  forsooth,  it  is  originated  and  conducted  by  Dr. 
Reid,  a  large-minded  American. 

"After  this,  will  you  be  surprised  to  hear  that  your  own 
publications,  the  best  text-books  for  the  schools  of  the  Far 
East,  have  been  put  on  the  index  expur gator iusf  A  num- 
ber of  such  books  were  lately  returned  with  the  excuse  that 
they  were  forbidden  because  they  bore  the  stamp  of  an 
American  press. 


ANTI-FOREIGN  AGITATION  249 

"If  I  should  go  on  to  say  that  government  officials,  high  and 
low,  look  with  satisfaction  on  this  assertion  of  something  like 
national  feeling,  you  might  reply,  'National  feeling!  Yes,  it  is 
a  duty  to  cultivate  that. '  But  do  we  not  know  how  it  has  been 
fostered  in  China?  Has  not  hatred  of  the  foreigner  been  mis- 
taken for  patriotism,  and  been  secretly  instigated  as  a  safe- 
guard against  foreign  aggression?  In  this  instance,  however, 
there  is  no  room  to  suspect  such  a  motive.  The  movement  is 
purely  a  result  of  provocation  on  our  part;  and  it  is  fostered 
with  a  view  to  coercing  our  government  into  modifying  or  re- 
pealing our  offensive  exclusion  laws.  The  Viceroy  of  Central 
China,  with  whom  I  have  spent  the  last  three  years,  is  known 
as  a  pioneer  of  reform — a  man  who  has 'done  more  than  any 
other  to  instruct  his  people  in  their  duties  as  well  as  their  rights. 
When,  on  the  expiration  of  my  engagement,  I  was  about  to  leave 
for  home,  the  prefect  of  Wuchang,  a  Canton  man,  addressed  me 
a  letter  begging  me  to  plead  the  cause  of  his  people  with  the 
President  of  the  United  States.  That  letter  was  referred  to 
in  an  interview  by  the  viceroy,  and  the  request  which  it  contained 
reiterated  by  him.  He  gave  me  a  parting  banquet,  attended 
by  many  of  his  mandarins,  and  on  that  occasion  the  subject 
came  up  again  and  the  same  request  was  renewed  and  pressed 
on  me  from  all  sides.  While  I  promised  to  exert  myself  on 
their  behalf,  let  me  give  you  a  specimen  of  the  kind  of  oil  which 
I  poured  on  their  wounded  feelings. 

"Said  I,  'Under  the  exasperating  effect  of  these  petty  griev- 
ances your  people  forget  what  they  owe  to  the  United  States. 
They  lose  sight  of  the  danger  of  alienating  their  best  friend.  In 
the  Boxer  War,  when  Peking  was  captured  by  a  combined  force 
of  eight  foreign  powers,  who  but  America  was  the  first  to  intro- 
duce a  self-denying  ordinance  forbidding  any  power  to  take  any 
portion  of  the  Chinese  territory?  In  this  she  was  backed  up  by 
Great  Britain;  the  other  powers  fell  into  line  and  the  integrity 
of  the  Empire  was  assured.  Again,  when  China  was  in  danger 
of  being  drawn  into  the  vortex  of  the  Russo-Japanese  war,  who 
but  America  secured  for  her  the  privileges  of  neutrality — thus  a 
second  time  protecting  her  national  life?  And  now  you  turn 


2  50  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

against  us!  Is  not  such  conduct  condemned  by  your  ancient 
poet  who  says: 


(<  I 


'Ki  wo  siao  yuen,  wang  wo  ta  teh\  etc. 

(How  many  acts  of  kindness  done 

One  small  offence  wipes  out, 
As  motes  obscure  the  shining  sun 

And  shut  his  lustre  out.') 

"If  the  cause  of  offence  be  taken  away  there  is  reason  to 
hope  that  the  beneficent  action  of  our  country,  on  those  two 
occasions  so  big  with  destiny,  will  be  remembered,  and  will 
lead  China  to  look  to  our  flag  as  an  asgis  under  which  she  may 
find  protection  in  time  of  need.  Not  till  then  will  our  influence, 
now  reduced  to  the  vanishing-point,  be  integrated  to  its  full 
value. 

PROVOCATIONS    TO    A    BOYCOTT 

"The  injuries  inflicted,  though  trifling  in  comparison  with 
the  benefits  conferred,  are  such  as  no  self-respecting  people 
should  either  perpetrate  or  endure.  Take  one  example,  where 
I  could  give  you  twenty.  Two  young  men,  both  Christians, 
one  rich,  the  other  poor,  came  to  the  United  States  for  education. 
They  were  detained  in  a  prison-shed  for  three  months.  One  of 
them,  falling  sick,  was  removed  to  a  hospital;  the  other  obtain- 
ing permission  to  visit  him,  they  made  their  escape  to  Canada 
and  thence  back  to  China. 

"What  wonder  no  more  students  come  to  us  and  that  over 
8,000  are  now  pursuing  their  studies  in  Japan!* 

"The  present  irritation  is,  we  are  assured  by  the  agitators, 
provoked  by  the  outrageous  treatment  of  the  privileged  classes 
(merchants,  travellers  and  students)  and  not  by  the  exclusion 
of  labourers,  to  which  their  government  has  given  its  assent.  Yet 
in  the  growing  intelligence  of  the  Chinese  a  time  has  come  when 
their  rulers  feel  such  discrimination  as  a  stigma.     It  is  not  merely 


*  The    conciliatory   policy   of    President    Roosevelt   is    bearing   fruit 
Forty  students  are  about  to  start  to  the  United  States  (May,  1906). 


ANTI-FOREIGN  AGITATION  251 

a  just  application  of  existing  laws  that  Viceroy  Chang  and  his 
mandarins  demand.  They  call  for  the  rescinding  of  those  dis- 
graceful prohibitions  and  the  right  to  compete  on  equal  terms 
with  immigrants  from  Europe.  If  we  show  a  disposition  to 
treat  the  Chinese  fairly,  their  country  and  their  hearts  will  be 
open  to  us  as  never  before.  Our  commerce  with  China  will 
expand  to  vast  proportions;  and  our  flag  will  stand  highest 
among  those  that  overarch  and  protect  the  integrity  of  that 
empire." 

On  November  16,  I  was  received  by  President 
Roosevelt.  Running  his  eye  over  the  documents 
(see  below)  which  I  placed  in  his  hands  he  expressed 
himself  on  each  point.  The  grievances  arising  from 
the  Exclusion  Laws  he  acknowledged  to  be  real.  He 
promised  that  they  should  be  mitigated  or  removed 
by  improvements  in  the  mode  of  administration;  but 
he  held  out  no  hope  of  their  repeal.  "  We  have  one  race 
problem  on  our  hands  and  we  don't  want  another," 
he  said  with  emphasis.  The  boycott  which  the  Chinese 
have  resorted  to  as  a  mode  of  coercion  he  condemned 
as  an  aggravation  of  existing  difficulties.  The  inter- 
ruption of  trade  and  the  killing  of  American  missionaries 
to  which  it  had  led  made  it  impossible,  he  said,  to  turn 
over  to  China  the  surplus  indemnity,  as  he  had  intended. 

This  response  is  what  I  expected;  but  it  will  by  no 
means  satisfy  the  ruling  classes  in  China,  who  aim  at 
nothing  short  of  repeal.  When  I  assured  him  the  news- 
papers were  wrong  in  representing  the  agitation  as 
confined  to  labourers  and  merchants,  adding  that  the 
highest  mandarins,  while  formally  condemning  it, 
really  give  it  countenance,  he  replied  that  he  believed 
that  to  be  the  case,  and  reiterated  the  declaration  that 


252  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

nothing  is  to  be  gained  by  such  violent  measures  on 
the  part  of  China. 

From  the  Executive  Mansion,  I  proceeded  to  the 
Chinese  Legation,  where  I  talked  over  the  matter  with 
the  minister,  Sir  Chentung  Liang.  He  was  not  sur- 
prised at  the  attitude  of  the  President.  He  said  the 
state  of  feeling  towards  China  in  Congress  and  in  the 
entire  country  is  improving,  but  that,  in  his  opinion, 
it  will  require  ten  years  to  bring  about  the  repeal  of 
the  Exclusion  Laws. 

The  present  hitch  in  negotiations  comes  in  part  from 
Peking,  but  he  hoped  a  temporary  settlement  would 
soon  be  arrived  at, 

The_papers  referred  to  above  are  here  appended. 

LETTERS    REQUESTING   GOOD    OFFICES 
(Translation) 

"To  the  Hon.  Dr.  Martin. 
"Sir: 

"  During  the  last  three  years  we  have  often  exchanged  views 
on  the  subject  of  education  and  other  topics  of  the  day ;  and  to 
me  it  is  a  joy  to  reflect  that  no  discordant  note  has  ever  marred 
OTir  intercourse. 

"In  view  of  your  learning  and  your  long  residence  of  forty 
years  at  our  capital,  besides  fifteen  years  in  other  parts  of  China, 
you  are  regarded  by  us  with  profound  respect.  When  we  hear 
your  words  we  ponder  them  and  treasure  them  up  as  things  not 
to  be  forgotten.  It  is  by  your  scholarship  and  by  your  personal 
character  that  you  have  been  able  to  associate  with  the  officers 
and  scholars  of  the  Central  Empire  in  harmony  like  this. 

"  Now,  sir,  there  is  a  matter  which  we  wish  to  bring  to  your 
attention — a  matter  that  calls  for  the  efforts  of  wise  men  like 
yourself.  I  refer  to  the  exclusion  of  Chinese  labourers.  It 
affects  our  mercantile  as  well  as  our  labouring  population  very 
deeply. 


ANTI-FOREIGN  AGITATION  253 

"We  beg  you  to  bear  in  mind  your  fifty -five  years'  sojourn  in 
China  and  to  speak  a  good  word  on  our  behalf  to  the  President 
of  the  United  States  so  as  to  secure  the  welfare  of  both  classes. 

"  If  through  your  persuasion  the  prohibitory  regulations  should 
be  withdrawn  the  gratitude  of  our  Chinese  people  will  know  no 
bounds;  yoiir  fifty -five  years  of  devotion  to  the  good  of  China 
will  have  a  fitting  consummation  in  one  day's  achievement; 
and  your  name  will  be  handed  down  to  coming  generations. 

"  Being  old  friends,  I  write  as  frankly  as  if  we  were  speaking 
face  to  face. 

"(Signed)  Liang  Ting  Fen, 
"Director   of   the   Normal   College   for   the   Two   Lake 
"Provinces,  Intendant  of  Circuit  (Taotai),  etc.   etc. 
"Wuchang,  July  8,   1905." 

The  foregoing  translation  was  made  by  me,  and  the 
original  is  attached  to  the  copy  presented  to  the 
President,  for  the  satisfaction  of  any  official  interpreter 
who  may  desire  to  see  it. 

This  letter  may  be  regarded  as  expressing  the  senti- 
ments of  the  higher  officials  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 
It  was  written  on  the  eve  of  my  embarkation  for  home 
by  a  man  who  more  than  any  other  has  a  right  to  be 
looked  on  as  spokesman  for  Viceroy  Chang;  and  the 
following  day  the  request  was  repeated  by  the  viceroy 
himself.  These  circumstances  make  it  a  document 
of  more  than  ordinary  importance. 

The  outrageous  treatment  to  which  the  privileged 
classes  (merchants,  students,  and  travellers)  have 
been  subjected,  under  cover  of  enforcing  the  Exclusion 
Laws,  has  caused  a  deep-rooted  resentment,  of  which 
the  boycott  is  only  a  superficial  manifestation.  That 
movement  may  not  be  of  long  duration,  but  it  has 
already  lasted  long  enough  to  do  us  no  little  damage. 


254  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

Besides  occasioning  embarrassment  to  our  trade, 
it  has  excited  a  feeling  of  hostility  which  it  will  require 
years  of  conciliatory  policy  to  eradicate. 

The  letter  makes  no  direct  reference  to  the  boycott, 
neither  does  it  allude  to  coming  negotiations;  yet 
there  can  be  little  doubt  that,  in  making  this  appeal, 
the  writer  had  both  in  view.  The  viceroy  and  his 
officials  are  right  in  regarding  the  present  as  a  grave 
crisis  in  the  intercourse  of  the  two  countries. 

Their  amicable  relations  have  never  been  interrupted 
except  during  a  fanatical  outbreak  known  as  the  "  Boxer 
Troubles,"  which  aimed  at  the  expulsion  of  all  foreign- 
ers. The  leading  part  taken  by  our  country  in  the 
subsequent  settlement,  especially  in  warding  off  the 
threatened  dismemberment  of  China,  added  immensely 
to  our  influence.  Again,  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Russo- 
Japanese  conflict,  which  was  waged  mainly  on  Chinese 
territory,  it  was  American  diplomacy  that  secured 
for  China  the  advantage  of  neutrality,  and  once  more 
warded  off  a  danger  that  menaced  her  existence. 

Yet  every  spark  of  gratitude  for  these  transcendent 
services  is  liable  to  be  extinguished  by  the  irritation 
caused  by  discrimination  against  her  labourers  and 
the  consequent  ill-treatment  of  other  classes  of  her 
people.  No  argument  is  required  to  show  how  im- 
portant it  is  to  remove  all  grounds  of  complaint  in  the 
interest  of  our  growing  commerce. 

That  any  sweeping  alteration  will  be  made  in  our 
existing  laws,  I  have  given  my  mandarin  friends  no 
reason  to  expect.  Self-preservation  stands  on  a  higher 
plane  than  the  amenities  of  intercourse.  For  many 
years  these  laws  served  as  a  bulwark  without  which  the 


THE  EMPRESS  OF  CHINA 


THE  EMPEROR'S  SECOND  WIFE 


TWO  PORTRAITS  OF  IKE  EMPRESS  DOWAGER 


TjI» 


*^J 


'v:*"'i?^.r. 


^^//-r 


'NIA_ 


ANTI-FOREIGN  AGITATION  255 

sparse  population  of  our  Western  States  would  have 
been  swamped  by  the  influx  of  Asiatics.  In  early- 
days  it  was  easier  for  the  Chinese  to  cross  the  ocean 
than  for  the  people  of  our  Eastern  States  to  cross  the 
Continent.  Now,  however,  the  completion  of  railroads 
has  reduced  the  continental  transit  to  five  or  six  days, 
in  lieu  of  many  months;  and  the  population  of  our 
Pacific  Coast  is  so  considerable  that  there  is  no  longer 
any  danger  of  its  being  overrun  by  immigrants  from 
the  Far  East.  Is  it  not  therefore  a  fair  question 
whether  the  maintenance  of  these  old  restrictions  is 
desirable  or  politic?  Swaddling  bands,  necessary  for 
the  protection  of  an  infant,  are  an  impediment  to  a 
growing  boy.  That  question  can  perhaps  be  best 
decided  by  ascertaining  the  general  sentiment  of  our 
Pacific  States.  My  impression  is  that,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  fruit-growers  of  California  and  some 
others,  they  are  strongly  opposed  to  what  they  call 
"letting  down  the  bars." 

The  most  feasible  way  of  meeting  the  difficulty  would 
be,  as  it  appears  to  me,  the  enactment  of  regulations 
to  provide  against  abuses  in  the  enforcement  of  our 
Exclusion  Laws.  The  President  has  already  spoken 
forcibly  in  condemnation  of  such  abuses.  The  "  priv- 
ileged classes"  might  be  construed  in  a  more  liberal 
sense.  Provision  might  be  made  to  mitigate  the  hard- 
ships of  detention  and  repatriation;  and  a  better  class 
of  inspectors  might  be  appointed  with  a  general  super- 
intendent, whose  duty  it  should  be  to  see  that  the  laws 
are  enforced  humanely  as  well  as  faithfully. 

On  December  18,  less  than  three  months  after 
the  attack  on  Americans  at  Lienchow,   an   attempt 


256  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

was  made  to  destroy  the  British  settlement  in 
Shanghai. 

A  woman  arrested  on  a  charge  of  kidnapping  was 
sent  to  the  foreign  jail  to  await  trial.  The  Chinese 
assessor  insisted,  not  without  reason,  that  she  ought 
to  be  kept  in  a  native  jail.  No  attention  being  given 
to  his  protest,  though  supported  by  the  iaotai  or 
local  governor,  a  mob  of  riff-raff  from  beyond  the  limits 
burst  into  the  settlement,  put  the  foreign  police  to 
flight,  and  began  to  burn  and  pillage.  Happily  a 
body  of  marines  with  gatling  guns  and  fire-engines 
succeeded  in  quelling  the  flames  and  suppressing  the 
insurrection.  A  few  hours'  delay  must  have  seen  that 
rich  emporium  converted  into  a  heap  of  ashes.  Forty 
of  the  rioters  were  killed  and  many  wounded.  Though 
on  ground  granted  to  Great  Britain,  the  settlement 
is  called  international  and  is  governed  by  a  municipal 
council  elected  by  the  foreign  ratepayers.  The  Chinese 
residents,  numbering  half  a  million,  are  allowed  no 
voice  in  the  council ;  and  that  also  is  felt  as  a  grievance. 
They  are,  however,  protected  against  the  rapacity  of 
their  own  officials;  and  it  is  said  they  took  no  part  in 
the  riot.  In  fact  had  it  not  been  promptly  suppressed 
they  must  have  suffered  all  the  horrors  of  sack  and  pil- 
lage. After  it  was  over  they  took  occasion  to  demand 
recognition  in  the  municipal  government ;  promising  to 
be  satisfied  if  allowed  to  appoint  a  permanent  com- 
mittee, with  whom  the  council  should  consult  before 
deciding  on  any  question  affecting  their  interests. 

Modest  as  this  request  was,  it  was  rejected  by  an 
almost  unanimous  vote  of  the  foreign  ratepayers. 
They  knew  that   such  committee,   however  elected, 


ANTI-FOREIGN  AGITATION  257 

was  certain  to  be  manipulated  by  the  governor  to 
extend  his  jurisdiction.  Their  decision  was  quietly- 
accepted  by  the  Chinese  residents,  who  appreciate 
the  protection  which  they  enjoy  in  that  strange 
republic.  The  question  is  certain  to  come  up  again, 
and  their  claim  to  be  heard  will  be  pressed  with  more 
insistence  as  they  become  more  acquainted  with  the 
principles   of   representative   government. 

The  existence  of  an  imperium  in  imperio  which 
comes  between  them  and  their  people  is  of  course 
distasteful  to  the  mandarins;  and  they  are  bent  on 
curtailing  its  privileges.  If  its  franchises  were  sur- 
rendered, "  Ichabod  "  might  be  inscribed  on  the  gates 
of  the  model  settlement. 

The  practice  of  marking  out  a  special  quarter  for 
each  nationality  is  an  old  one  in  China,  adopted  for 
convenience.  When,  after  the  first  war,  the  British 
exacted  the  opening  of  ports,  they  required  the  grant 
of  a  concession  in  each,  within  which  their  consuls 
should  have  chief,  if  not  exclusive  authority.  Other 
nations  made  the  same  demands;  and  China  made 
the  grants,  not  as  to  the  British  from  necessity,  but 
apparently  from  choice — the  foreign  consul  being 
bound  to  keep  his  people  in  order.  Now,  however, 
the  influx  of  natives  into  the  foreign  settlements, 
and  the  enormous  growth  of  those  mixed  communities 
in  wealth  and  population,  have  led  the  Chinese  Gov- 
ernment to  look  on  the  ready  compliance  of  its  pre- 
decessors as  a  blunder.  Accordingly,  in  opening  new 
ports  in  the  interior  it  marks  out  a  foreign  quarter, 
but  makes  no  "concession."  It  does  not  as  before 
waive  the  exercise  of  jurisdiction  within  those  limits. 


258  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

The  above  question  relates  solely  to  the  government 
of  Chinese  residing  in  the  foreign  "concessions." 
But  there  is  a  larger  question  now  looming  on  the 
political  sky,  viz.,  how  to  recover  the  right  of  control 
over  foreigners,  wherever  they  may  be  in  the  Empire. 
If  it  were  in  their  power,  the  Chinese  would  cancel 
not  merely  the  franchises  of  foreign  settlements,  but 
the  treaty  right  of  exemption  from  control  by  the 
local  government.  This  is  a  franchise  of  vital  interest 
to  the  foreigner,  whose  life  and  property  would  not  be 
safe  were  they  dependent  on  the  native  tribunals  as 
these  are  at  present  constituted. 

Such  exemption  is  customary  in  Turkey  and  other 
Moslem  countries,  not  to  say  among  the  Negroes  of 
Africa.  It  was  recognised  by  treaty  in  Japan;  and 
the  Japanese,  in  proportion  as  they  advanced  in  the 
path  of  reform,  felt  galled  by  an  exception  which 
fixed  on  them  the  stigma  of  barbarism.  When  they 
had  proved  their  right  to  a  place  in  the  comity  of 
nations,  with  good  laws  administered,  foreign  powers 
cheerfully  consented  to  allow  them  the  exercise  of  all 
the  prerogatives  of  sovereignty. 

How  does  her  period  of  probation  compare  with 
that  of  her  neighbour?  Japan  resolved  on  national 
renovation  on  Western  lines  in  1868.  China  came  to 
no  such-  resolution  until  the  collapse  of  her  attempt 
to  exterminate  the  foreigner  in  1900.  With  her  the 
age  of  reform  dates  from  the  return  of  the  Court  in 
1902 — as  compared  with  Japan  four  years  to  thirt}^! 
Then  what  a  contrast  in  the  animus  of  the  two  countries ! 
The  one  characterised  by  law  and  order,   the  other 


ANTI-FOREIGN  AGITATION  259 

by  mob  violence,  unrestrained,  if  not  instigated,  by 
the  authorities! 

When  the  north  wind  tried  to  compel  a  traveller 
to  take  off  his  cloak,  the  cloak  was  wrapped  the  closer 
and  held  the  tighter.  When  the  sun  came  out  with 
his  warm  beams,  the  traveller  stripped  it  off  of  his  own 
accord. 

The  sunrise  empire  has  exemplified  the  latter 
method;  China  prefers  the  former.  Is  it  not  to  be 
feared  that  the  apparent  success  of  the  boycott  will 
encourage  her  to  persist  in  the  policy  of  the  traveller 
in  the  north  wind.  She  ought  to  be  notified  that  she 
is  on  probation,  and  that  the  only  way  to  recover  the 
exercise  of  her  sovereign  rights  is  to  show  herself  worthy 
of  confidence.  The  Boxer  outbreak  postponed  by 
many  years  the  withdrawal  of  the  cloak  of  ex-terri- 
toriality,  and  every  fresh  exhibition  of  mob  violence 
defers  that  event  to  a  more  distant  date. 

To  confound  "stranger"  with  "enemy"  is  the  error 
of  Bedouin  or  Afghan.  Does  not  China  do  the  same 
when  she  mistakes  hostility  to  foreigners  for  patriotism  ? 
By  this  blunder  she  runs  the  risk  of  alienating  her 
best  friends,  England  and  America.  A  farmer  at- 
tempting to  rope  up  a  shaky  barrel  in  which  a  hen 
was  sitting  on  a  nest  full  of  eggs,  the  silly  fowl  mistook 
him  for  an  enemy  and  flew  in  his  face.  Is  not  China 
in  danger  of  being  left  to  the  fate  which  her  friends 
have  sought  to  avert? 

In  April  a  magistrate  went  by  invitation  to  the 
French  Catholic  Mission  to  settle  a  long-standing 
dispute,  and  he  settled  it  by  committing  suicide — in 
China  the  most   dreaded   form  of  revenge.     Carried 


26o  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

out  gasping  but  speechless,  he  intimated  that  he  was 
the  victim  of  a  murderous  attack  by  the  senior  priest. 
His  wounds  were  photographed;  and  the  pictures 
were  circulated  with  a  view  to  exciting  the  mob. 
Gentry  and  populace  held  meetings  for  the  purpose 
of  screwing  their  courage  up  to  the  required  pitch — 
governor  and  mandarins  kept  carefully  in  the  back- 
ground— and  on  the  fifth  day  the  mission  buildings 
were  destroyed  and  the  priests  killed.  An  English  mis- 
sionary, his  wife  and  daughter,  living  not  far  away,  were 
set  upon  and  slain,  not  because  they  were  not  known  to 
belong  to  another  nation  and  another  creed,  but  be- 
cause an  infuriated  mob  does  not  care  to  discriminate. 
English  and  French  officials  proceeded  to  the  scene 
in  gunboats  to  examine  the  case  and  arrange  a  settle- 
ment. The  case  of  the  English  family  was  settled 
without  difficulty;  but  that  of  the  French  Mission  is 
still  (May  19)  sub  judice.  Among  the  French  demands 
are  two  items  which  the  Chinese  Government  finds 
embarrassing.  It  had  accepted  the  theory  of  murder 
and  hastily  conferred  posthumous  honours  on  the 
deceased  magistrate.  The  French  demand  the  re- 
traction of  those  honours,  and  a  public  admission  of 
suicide.  To  pay  a  money  indemnity  and  cashier  a 
governor  was  no  great  hardship,  but  how  can  the 
court  submit  to  the  humiliation  of  dancing  to  the  tune 
of  a  French  piper?  An  English  surgeon  has  declared,  in 
a  sealed  report  of  autopsy,  that  the  wounds  must  have 
been  self-inflicted,  as  their  position  made  it  impossible 
for  them  to  have  been  inflicted  by  an  assailant.    But 

"  A  man  convinced  against  his  will 
Is  of  the  same  opinion  still." 


ANTI-FOREIGN  AGITATION  261 

In  1870  France  accepted  a  money  payment  for  the 
atrocious  massacre  at  Tientsin,  because  the  Second 
Empire  was  entering  on  a  Ufe-and-death  struggle 
with  Germany.  If  she  makes  things  easy  for  China 
this  time,  will  it  not  be  because  the  Republic  is  en- 
gaged in  mortal  combat  with  the  Roman  Church? 

China's  constant  friction  and  frequent  collisions 
with  France  spring  chiefly  from  two  sources;  (i)  the 
French  protectorate  over  the  Roman  missions,  and 
(2)  the  menacing  attitude  of  France  in  Indo-China.  It 
was  to  avenge  the  judicial  murder  of  a  missionary  that 
Louis  Napoleon  sent  troops  to  China  in  1857-60. 
From  this  last  date  the  long-persecuted  Church  assumed 
an  imperious  tone.  The  restitution  of  confiscated 
property  was  a  source  of  endless  trouble;  and  the 
certainty  of  being  backed  up  by  Church  and  State 
emboldened  native  converts  not  only  to  insist  on  their 
own  rights,  but  to  mix  in  disputes  with  which  they  had 
no  necessary  connection — a  practice  which  more  than 
anything  else  has  tended  to  bring  the  Holy  Faith  into 
disrepute  among  the  Chinese  people. 

Yet,  on  the  other  side,  there  are  more  fruitful  sources 
of  difficulty  in  the  ignorance  of  the  people  and  in  the 
unfair  treatment  of  converts  by  the  Chinese  Govern- 
ment. While  the  Government,  having  no  conception 
of  religious  freedom,  extends  to  Christians  of  all  creeds 
a  compulsory  toleration  and  views  them  as  traitors  to 
their  country,  is  it  not  natural  for  their  pagan  neigh- 
bours to  treat  them  with  dislike  and  suspicion? 

In  this  state  of  mind  they,  like  the  pagans  of  ancient 
Rome,  charge  them  with  horrible  crimes,  and  seize  the 
slightest  occasion  for  murderous  attack.     A  church 


262  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

spire  is  said  to  disturb  the  good  luck  of  a  neighbourhood 
— the  people  bum  the  building.  A  rumour  is  started 
that  babies  in  a  foundling  hospital  have  their  eyes  taken 
out  to  make  into  photographic  medicine — the  hospital 
is  demolished  and  the  Sisters  of  Charity  killed.  A 
skeleton  found  in  the  house  of  a  physician  is  paraded 
on  the  street  as  proof  of  diabolical  acts — instantly  an 
angry  mob  wrecks  the  building  and  murders  every 
foreigner  within  its  reach.  One  of  these  instances 
was  seen  in  the  Tientsin  massacre  of  1869,  the  other  in  the 
Lienchow  massacre  of  1905.  Nor  are  these  isolated 
cases.  Two  American  ladies  doing  hospital  work  in 
Canton  were  set  upon  by  a  mob,  who  accused  them  of 
killing  a  man  whose  life  they  were  trying  to  save,  and 
they  narrowly  escaped  murder.  But  why  extend  the 
gruesome  list?  In  view  of  their  mad  fury,  so  fatal 
to  their  benefactors,  one  is  tempted  to  exclaim:  Un- 
glaube  du  bist  nicht  so  viel  ein  ungeheuer  als  aberglauhe 
du!  "Of  the  twin  monsters,  unbelief  and  superstition, 
the  more  to  be  dreaded  is  the  last! " 

In  China  if  a  man  falls  in  the  street,  the  priest  and 
Levite  consult  their  own  safety  by  keeping  at  a  dis- 
tance; and  if  a  good  Samaritan  stoops  to  pick  him  up 
it  is  at  his  peril.  In  treating  the  sick  a  medical  man 
requires  as  much  courage  and  tact  as  if  he  were  dealing 
with  lunatics!  These  dark  shadows,  so  harmful  to 
the  good  name  of  China,  are  certain  to  be  dissipated 
by  the  numerous  agencies  now  employed  to  diffuse 
intelligence.  But  what  of  the  feeling  towards  religious 
missions? 

Medical  missions  are  recognised  as  a  potent  agency 
in  overcoming  prejudice.     They  reach  the  heart  of 


ANTI-FOREIGN  AGITATION  263 

the  people  by  ministering  to  their  bodily  infirmities; 
high  officials  are  among  their  supporters;  and  the 
Empress  Dowager  has  of  late  shown  a  disposition  to 
give  them  her  patronage.  But  how  about  the  preach- 
ing missionary  and  the  teaching  missionary?  Are 
the  Chinese  hostile  to  these  branches  of  missionary 
work? 

Unlike  Mohammedan  or  Brahman,  the  Chinese  are 
not  strongly  attached  to  any  form  of  religious  faith. 
They  take  no  umbrage  at  the  offer  of  a  new  creed, 
particularly  if  it  have  the  advantage  of  being  akin  to 
that  of  their  ancient  sages.  What  they  object  to  is 
not  the  creed,  but  the  foreigner  who  brings  it.  Their 
newspapers  are  in  fact  beginning  to  agitate  the  question 
of  accepting  the  Christian  faith  and  propagating  it  in 
their  own  way,  without  aid  from  the  foreigner.  That 
they  would  be  glad  to  see  merchant  and  missionary 
leave  them  in  peace,  no  one  can  doubt.  Yet  the 
influence  of  missions  is  steadily  on  the  increase;  and 
their  influence  for  good  is  acknowledged  by  the  leading 
minds  of  the  Empire. 

Said  the  High  Commissioner  Tuan  Fang,  in  an  ad- 
dress to  the  Mission  Boards  at  New  York,  February 
2,  1906: 

"  We  take  pleasure  this  evening  in  bearing  testimony  to  the  part 
taken  by  American  missionaries  in  promoting  the  progress  of 
the  Chinese  people.  They  have  borne  the  light  of  Western 
civilisation  into  every  nook  and  corner  of  the  Empire.  They 
have  rendered  inestimable  service  to  China  by  the  laborious 
task  of  translating  into  the  Chinese  language  religious  and 
scientific  works  of  the  West.  They  help  us  to  bring  happiness 
and  comfort  to  the  poor  and  the  suffering  by  the  establishment 


264  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

of  hospitals  and  schools.  The  awakening  of  China  which  now 
seems  to  be  at  hand  may  be  traced  in  no  small  measiixe  to  the 
hand  of  the  missionary.  For  this  service  you  will  find  China 
not  ungrateful." 


Mission  stations,  now  counted  by  hundreds,  have 
generally  high  schools  or  colleges.  Not  only  is  the 
science  taught  in  them  up-to-date,  but  the  conscien- 
tious manner  in  which  they  are  conducted  makes  them 
an  object-lesson  to  those  officials  who  are  charged  with 
the  supervision  of  government  schools.  To  name 
only  a  few: 

Here  in  Peking  is  a  university  of  the  American 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  which  is  not  unworthy  of 
the  name  it  bears.  At  Tungchow,  a  suburb  of  the 
capital,  is  a  noble  college  of  the  American  Board 
(Congregationalist)  which  is  in  every  point  a  worthy 
compeer.  These  cooperate  with  each  other  and  with 
a  Union  Medical  College  which  under  the  London 
Mission  has  won  the  favour  of  the  Empress  Dowager. 

The  American  Presbyterian  Mission  has  a  high  school 
and  a  theological  seminary,  and  cooperates  to  a  certain 
extent  with  the  three  societies  above  named.  A 
quadrilateral  union  like  this  speaks  volumes  as  to  the 
spirit  in  which  the  work  of  Christian  education  is 
being  carried  forward.  The  Atlantic  is  bridged  and 
two  nations  unite;  denominational  differences  are 
forgotten  in  view  of  the  mighty  enterprise  of  convert- 
ing an  empire.  In  the  economy  of  their  teaching  force 
they  already  experience  the  truth  of  the  maxim  ' '  Union 
is  Strength." 

In  Shantung,  at  Weihien,  there  is  a  fine  college  in 


ANTI-FOREIGN  AGITATION  265 

which  English  Baptists  unite  with  American  Presby- 
terians. The  original  plant  of  the  latter  was  a  college 
at  Tengchow,  which  under  Dr.  Mateer  afforded  con- 
clusive proof  that  an  education  deep  and  broad  may 
be  given  through  the  medium  of  the  Chinese  language. 
In  most  of  these  schools  the  English  language  is  now 
claiming  a  prominent  place,  not  as  the  sole  medium  for 
instruction,  but  as  a  key  to  the  world's  literature,  and 
a  preparation  for  intercourse  with  foreign  nations. 

At  Shanghai,  which  takes  the  lead  in  education  as 
in  commerce,  there  is  an  admirable  institution  called 
St.  John's  College  which  makes  English  the  basis  of 
instruction.  Numberless  other  schools  make  it  a 
leading  branch  of  study  to  meet  the  wants  of  a  centre  of 
foreign  trade. 

One  of  the  best  known  institutions  of  Shanghai  is 
a  Roman  Catholic  College  at  Siccawei,  which  preserves 
the  traditions  of  Matteo  Ricci,  and  his  famous  convert 
Paul  Su.  In  connection  with  it  are  an  astronomical 
observatory  and  a  weather  bureau,  which  are  much 
appreciated  by  foreigners  in  China,  and  ought  to  be 
better  known  throughout  the  Empire. 

Passing  down  a  coast  on  which  colleges  are  more 
numerous  than  lighthouses,  one  comes  to  Canton, 
where,  near  the  "Great  City"  and  beautifully  conspic- 
uous, rises  the  Canton  Christian  College. 

These  are  mentioned  by  way  of  example,  to  show 
what  missionaries  are  doing  for  the  education  of  China. 
It  is  a  narrow  view  of  education  that  confines  it  to 
teaching  in  schools.  Missionaries  led  the  way  in 
Chinese  journalism  and  in  the  preparation  of  text- 
books in  all  branches  of  science.     The  Society  for  the 


266  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge  is  spreading  broadcast 
the  seeds  of  secular  and  religious  truth. 

Gratitude  for  the  good  they  have  already  done,  as 
well  as  for  benefits  to  come,  ought  to  lead  the  Chinese 
Government  to  accord  a  generous  recognition  to  all 
these  institutions.  At  the  opening  of  the  Union 
Medical  College,  Mr.  Rockhill,  the  American  minister, 
in  a  remarkable  address,  proposed  the  recognition  of 
their  degrees  by  the  Government;  and  as  a  represent- 
ative of  the  Empress  Dowager  was  in  the  chair  on  that 
occasion,  there  is  reason  to  hope  that  his  suggestion 
will  not  be  overlooked. 


CHAPTER  XXXII 

THE  MANCHUS,  THE  NORMANS  OF  CHINA 

The  Ta-Ts'ing  Dynasty — The  Empress  Dowager — Her 
Origin — Her  First  Regency — Her  Personality — Other 
Types — Two  Manchu  Princes — Two  Manchu  Min- 
isters— The  Nation's  Choice — Conclusions 

IN  A  wide  survey  of  the  history  of  the  world,  we  dis- 
cover a  law  which  appears  to  govern  the  move- 
ments of  nations.  Those  of  the  north  show  a 
tendency  to  encroach  on  those  of  the  south.  The 
former  are  nomads,  hunters,  or  fishers,  made  bold  by 
a  constant  struggle  with  the  infelicities  of  their  en- 
vironment. The  latter  are  occupied  with  the  settled 
industries  of  civilised  life. 

The  Goths  and  Vandals  of  Rome,  and  the  Tartars 
under  Genghis  and  Tamerlane  all  conform  to  this  law 
and  seem  to  be  actuated  by  a  common  impulse.  In 
the  east  and  west  of  the  Eastern  hemisphere  may 
be  noted  two  examples  of  this  general  movement, 
which  afford  a  curious  parallel :  I  refer  to  the  Normans 
of  Great  Britain  and  the  Manchus  of  China.  Both 
empires  are  under  the  sway  of  dynasties  which  origi- 
nated in  the  north;  for  the  royal  house  of  Britain, 
though  under  another  title,  has  always  been  proud  of 
its  Norman  blood. 

The    Normans    who    conquered    Britain   nad    first 

267 


268  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

settled  in  France  and  there  acquired  the  arts  of  civi- 
lised life.  The  Manchus  coming  from  the  banks  of 
the  Amur  settled  in  Liao-tung,  a  region  somewhat 
similarly  situated  with  reference  to  China.  There 
they  learned  something  of  the  civilisation  of  China, 
and  watched  for  an  opportunity  to  obtain  possession 
of  the  empire.  In  Britain  a  kindred  branch  of  the 
Norman  family  was  on  the  throne,  and  William  the 
Conqueror  contrived  to  give  his  invasion  a  colour  of 
right,  by  claiming  the  throne  under  an  alleged  bequest 
of  Edward  the  Confessor.  The  Manchus,  though 
not  invoking  such  artificial  sanction,  aspired  to  the 
dominion  of  China  because  their  ancestors  of  the 
Golden  Horde  had  ruled  over  the  northern  half  of  the 
empire.  The  Norman  conquest,  growing  out  of  a 
family  quarrel,  was  decided  by  a  single  battle.  The 
Manchus'  conquest  of  a  country  more  than  ten  times 
the  extent  of  Britain  was  not  so  easy  to  effect.  Yet 
they  achieved  it  with  unexampled  rapidity,  because 
they  came  by  invitation  and  they  brought  peace  to  a 
people  exhausted  by  long  wars.  Their  task  was 
comparatively  easy  in  the  north,  where  the  traditions 
of  the  Kin  Tartars  still  survived;  but  it  was  prolonged 
and  bloody  in  the  south. 

Both  houses  treated  their  new  subjects  as  a  con- 
quered people.  Each  imposed  the  burden  of  foreign 
garrisons  and  a  new  nobility.  Each  introduced  a  for- 
eign language,  which  they  tried  to  perpetuate  as  the 
speech  of  the  court,  if  not  of  the  people.  In  each  case 
the  language  of  the  people  asserted  itself.  In  Britain 
it  absorbed  and  assimilated  the  alien  tongue;  in  China, 
where  the  absence  of  common  elements   made  amal- 


THE  MANCHUS  269 

gamation  impossible,  it  superseded  that  of  the  con- 
querors, not  merely  for  writing  purposes,  but  as  the 
spoken  dialect  of  the  court. 

Both  conquerors  found  it  necessary  to  conciliate 
the  subject  race  by  liberal  and  timely  concessions; 
but  here  begins  a  contrast.  In  Britain  no  external 
badge  of  subjection  was  ever  imposed;  in  process  of 
time  all  special  privileges  of  the  ruling  caste  were 
abolished;  and  no  trace  of  race  antipathy  ever 
displays  itself  an3rwhere — if  we  except  Ireland.  In 
China  the  cue  remains  as  a  badge  of  subjection. 
Habit  has  reconciled  the  people  to  its  use;  but  it  still 
offers  a  tempting  grip  to  revolutionary  agitators. 
Every  party  that  raises  the  standard  of  revolt  abolishes 
the  cue;  would  it  not  be  wise  for  the  Manchu  Gov- 
ernment to  make  the  wearing  of  that  appendage  a 
matter  of  option,  especially  as  it  is  beginning  to  dis- 
appear from  their  soldiers'  uniform? 

The  extension  of  reform  in  dress  from  camp  to 
court  and  from  court  to  people  (to  them  as  a  matter 
of  option)  would  remove  a  danger.  It  would  also 
remove  a  barrier  in  the  way  of  China's  admission  into 
the  congress  of  nations.  The  abolition  of  the  cue 
implies  the  abandonment  of  those  long  robes  which 
make  such  an  impression  of  barbaric  pomp.  Already 
the  Chinese  are  tacitly  permitted  to  adopt  foreign 
dress;  and  in  every  case  they  have  to  dispense  with 
the  cue.  The  Japanese  never  did  a  wiser  thing  than 
to  adopt  our  Western  costume.  Their  example  tends 
to  encourage  a  reform  of  the  same  kind  in  China. 
A  new  costume  means  a  new  era. 

Another  point  is  required  to  complete  the  parallel: 


2  70  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

each  victor  has  given  the  conquered  country  a  better 
government  than  any  in  its  previous  history.  To 
Confucius  feudaUsm  was  a  beau- ideal,  and  he  beautifully 
compares  the  sovereign  to  the  North  Star  which  sits  in 
state  on  the  pole  of  the  heavens  while  all  the  con- 
stellations revolve  around  it,  and  pay  it  homage.  Yet 
was  the  centralised  government  of  the  First  Hwang-ti 
an  immense  improvement  on  the  loose  agglomeration 
of  the  Chous.  The  great  dynasties  have  all  adopted 
the  principle  of  centralisation;  but  not  one  has  ap- 
plied it  with  such  success,  nor  is  there  one  which  shows 
so  large  a  proportion  of  respectable  rulers  as  the  house 
of  Ta-ts'ing.  Of  the  first  six  some  account  has  been 
given  in  Part  II.  As  to  the  next  two  it  is  too  soon  to 
have  the  verdict  of  history.  One  died  after  a  brief 
reign  of  two  years  and  three  months,  too  short  to  show 
character.  The  other  now  sits  at  the  foot  of  the 
throne,  while  his  adoptive  mother  sways  the  sceptre. 
Both  have  been  overshadowed  by  the  Empress  Dowager 
and  controlled  by  her  masterful  spirit. 

China  has  had  female  rulers  that  make  figures  in 
history,  such  as  Lu  of  the  Han  and  Wu  of  the  T'ang 
dynasties,  but  she  has  no  law  providing  for  the  succes- 
sion of  a  female  under  any  conditions.  A  female 
reign  is  abnormal,  and  the  ruler  a  monstrosity.  Her 
character  is  always  blackened  so  as  to  make  it  difficult 
to  delineate.  Yet  in  every  instance  those  women  have 
possessed  rare  talent;  for  without  uncommon  gifts  it 
must  have  been  impossible  to  seize  a  sceptre  in  the 
face  of  such  prejudices,  and  to  sway  it  over  a  submis- 
sive people.  Usually  they  are  described  much  as  the 
Jewish   chronicler  sketches  the  character  of  Jezebel 


THE  MANCHUS  271 

or  Athaliah.  Cruel,  licentious,  and  implacable,  they 
"  destroy  the  seed  royal, "  they  murder  the  prophets 
and  they  make  the  ears  of  the  nation  tingle  with  stories 
of  shameless  immorality. 

Among  these  we  shall  not  seek  a  parallel  for  the 
famous  Empress  Dowager,  so  well  known  to  the  readers 
of  magazine  literature.  In  tragic  vicissitudes,  if  not 
in  length  of  reign,  she  stands  without  a  rival  in  the 
history  of  the  world.  She  also  stands  alone  in  the 
fact  that  her  destinies  have  been  interwoven  with 
the  tangle  of  foreign  invasion.  Twice  has  she  fled 
from  the  gates  of  a  fallen  capital;  and  twice  has  the 
foreign  conqueror  permitted  her  to  return.  Without 
the  foreigner  and  his  self-imposed  restraint,  there 
could  have  been  no  Empress  Dowager  in  China. 
Does  she  hate  the  foreigner  for  driving  her  away,  or 
does  she  thank  him  for  her  repeated  restoration? 

The  daughter  of  Duke  Chou  (the  slave-girl  story 
is  a  myth),  she  became  a  secondary  wife  of  Hienfung 
in  1853  o^  1854;  and  her  sister  somewhat  later  be- 
came consort  of  the  Emperor's  younger  brother. 
Having  the  happiness  to  present  her  lord  with  a  son, 
she  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  Empress  and  began  to 
exert  no  little  influence  in  the  character  of  mother 
to  an  heir-apparent.  Had  she  not  been  protected 
by  her  new  rank  her  childless  rival  might  have  driven 
her  from  court  and  appropriated  the  boy.  She  had 
instead  to  admit  a  joint  motherhood,  which  in  a  few 
years  led  to  a  joint  regency. 

Scarcely  had  the  young  Empress  become  accustomed 
to  her  new  dignit}^  when  the  fall  of  Taku  and  Tien- 
tsin, in  i860,  warned  the  Emperor  of  what  he  might 


2  72  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

expect.  Taking  the  two  imperial  ladies  and  their 
infant  son,  he  retired  to  Jeho,  on  the  borders  of  Tar- 
tary,  in  time  to  escape  capture.  There  he  heard  of 
the  burning  of  his  summer  palace  and  the  surrender 
of  his  capital.  Whether  he  succumbed  to  disease 
or  whether  a  proud  nature  refused  to  survive  his  dis- 
grace, is  not  known.  What  we  do  know  is,  that  on  his 
death,  in  1861,  two  princes,  Sushun  and  Tuanhwa, 
organised  a  regency  and  brought  the  court  back  to  the 
capital  about  a  year  after  the  treaty  of  peace  had 
been  signed  by  Prince  Kung  as  the  Emperor's  repre- 
sentative. Prince  Kung  was  not  included  in  the 
council  of  regency;  and  he  knew  that  he  was  marked 
for  destruction.  Resolving  to  be  beforehand,  he  found 
means  to  consult  with  the  Empresses,  who  looked  to 
him  to  rescue  them  from  the  tyranny  of  the  Council 
of  Eight.  On  December  2  the  blow  was  struck:  all 
the  members  of  the  council  were  seized;  the  leader 
was  put  to  death  in  the  market-place;  some  com- 
mitted suicide;  and  others  were  condemned  to  exile. 
A  new  regency  was  formed,  consisting  of  the  two 
Empresses  and  Prince  Kung,  the  latter  having  the 
title  of  "joint  regent." 

What  part  the  Empress  Mother  had  taken  in  this 
her  first  coup  d'etat,  is  left  to  conjecture.  Penetrating 
and  ambitious  she  was  not  content  to  be  a  tool  in  the 
hands  of  the  Eight.  The  senior  Empress  yielded  to 
the  ascendency  of  a  superior  mind,  as  she  continued 
to  do  for  twenty  years. 

There  was  another  actor  whom  it  would  be  wrong 
to  overlook,  namely,  Kweiliang,  the  good  secretary, 
who  had  signed  the  treaties  at  Tientsin.     His  daughter 


THE  MANCHUS  273 

was  Prince  Kung's  principal  wife,  and  thoiigh  too  old 
to  take  a  leading  part  in  the  Court  revolutions,  it  was 
he  who  prompted  Prince  Kung,  who  was  young  and 
inexperienced,  to  strike  for  his  life. 

The  reigning  title  of  the  infant  Emperor  was  changed 
from  Kisiang,  "good  luck,"  to  Tung-chi,  "  joint  govern- 
ment " ;  and  the  Empire  acquiesced  in  the  new  regime. 

One  person  there  was,  however,  who  was  not  quite 
satisfied  with  the  arrangement.  This  was  the  restless, 
ambitious  young  Dowager.  The  Empire  was  quiet; 
and  things  went  on  in  their  new  course  for  years.  Prince 
Kung  all  the  time  growing  in  power  and  dignity.  His 
growing  influence  gave  her  umbrage ;  and  one  morning 
a  decree  from  the  two  Dowagers  stripped  him  of  power, 
and  confined  him  a  prisoner  in  his  palace.  His  alleged 
offence  was  want  of  respect  to  their  Majesties ;  he  threw 
himself  at  their  feet  and  implored  forgiveness. 

The  ladies  were  not  implacable;  he  was  restored  to 
favour  and  clothed  with  all  his  former  dignities,  except 
one.  The  title  of  Icheng-wang,  "joint  regent,"  never 
reappeared. 

In  1 88 1  the  death  of  the  senior  Dowager  left  the 
second  Dowager  alone  in  her  glory.  So  harmoniously 
had  they  cooperated  during  their  joint  regency,  and 
so  submissive  had  the  former  been  to  the  will  of  the 
latter,  that  there  was  no  ground  for  suspicion  of  foul 
play,  yet  such  suspicions  are  always  on  the  wing,  like 
bats  in  the  twilight  of  an  Oriental  court. 

On  the  death  of  Tung-chi,  the  adroit  selection  of  a 
nephew  of  three  summers  to  succeed  to  the  throne  as 
her  adopted  son,  gave  the  Dowager  the  prospect  of 
another   long   regency.     Recalled   to   power   by   the 


274  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

reactionaries,  in  1898,  after  a  brief  retirement,  the 
Empress  Dowager  dethroned  her  puppet  by  a  second 
coup-d'etat. 

During  the  ruinous  recoil  that  followed  she  had  the 
doubtful  satisfaction  of  feeling  herself  sole  autocrat 
of  the  Chinese  Empire.  Was  it  not  the  satisfaction 
of  a  gladiator  who  seated  himself  on  the  throne  of  the 
Cassars  in  a  burning  amphitheatre?  Was  she  not 
made  sensible  that  she,  too,  was  a  creature  of  cir- 
cumstances, when  her  ill-judged  policy  compelled  her 
a  second  time  to  seek  safety  in  flight?  A  helpless 
fugitive,  how  could  she  conceive  that  fortune  held  in 
reserve  for  her  brighter  days  than  she  had  ever 
experienced  ? 

Accepting  the  situation  and  returning  with  the 
Emperor,  the  Empire  and  the  world  have  accepted  her, 
and,  taught  by  experience,  she  is  now  engaged  in  the 
congenial  task  of  renovating  the  Chinese  people.  Ad- 
vancing years,  consciousness  of  power,  and  willing  con- 
formity to  the  freer  usages  of  European  courts,  all 
conspire  to  lead  her  to  throw  aside  the  veil  and  to 
appear  openly  as  the  chief  actor  on  this  imperial 
stage. 

Two  years  ago  her  seventieth  birthday  was  cele- 
brated with  great  pomp,  although  she  had  forbidden 
her  people  to  be  too  lavish  in  their  loyalty.  At 
Wuchang,  Tuan  Fang,  who  was  acting  viceroy,  gave  a 
banquet  at  which  he  asked  me  to  make  a  speech  in  the 
Dowager's  honour.  The  task  was  a  delicate  one  for 
a  man  who  had  borne  the  hardships  of  a  siege  in  1900; 
but  I  accepted  it,  and  excused  the  Dowager  on  the 
principle  of  British  law,   that  "The  king  can  do  no 


■'"-TV 


M4'^-^jLt 


THE  COURT  IN  MASQUERADE 
Dowager  as  Goddess  of  Mercy 


THE  MANCHUS  275 

wrong."  Throwing  the  blame  on  her  ministers,  I 
pronounced  a  eulogy  on  her  talents  and  her  public 
services. 

The  question  arises,  do  we  know  her  in  person  and 
character?  Have  we  not  seen  her  in  that  splendid 
portrait  executed  by  Miss  Carl,  and  exhibited  at  St. 
Louis?  If  we  suspect  the  artist  of  flattery,  have  we 
not  a  gallery  of  photographs,  in  which  she  shows  her- 
self in  many  a  majestic  pose?  Is  flattery  possible  to 
a  sunbeam?  We  certainly  see  her  as  truly  as  we  see 
ourselves  in  a  mirror! 

As  to  character,  it  is  too  soon  to  express  an  opinion. 
Varium  et  mutabile  semper  femina. 

To  pencil  and  sunbeam  add  word-pictures  by  men 
and  women  from  whose  critical  eyes  she  has  not  con- 
cealed herself;  and  we  may  confidently  affirm  that 
we  know  her  personal  appearance  as  well  as  we  know 
that  of  any  lady  who  occupies  or  shares  a  European 
throne.  A  trifle  under  the  average  height  of  European 
ladies,  so  perfect  are  her  proportions  and  so  graceful 
her  carriage  that  she  seems  to  need  nothing  to  add 
to  her  majesty.  Her  features  are  vivacious  and  pleas- 
ing rather  than  beautiful;  her  complexion,  not  yellow, 
but  subolive,  and  her  face  illuminated  by  orbs  of  jet, 
half-hidden  by  dark  lashes,  behind  which  lurk  the 
smiles  of  favour  or  the  lightning  of  anger.  No  one 
would  take  her  to  be  over  forty.  She  carries  tablets 
on  which,  even  during  conversation,  she  jots  down 
memoranda.  Her  pencil  is  the  support  of  her  sceptre. 
With  it  she  sends  out  her  autograph  commands;  and 
with  it,  too,  she  inscribest  hose  pictured  characters  which 
are  worn  as  the  proudest  decorations  of  her  ministers. 


276  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

I  have  seen  them  in  gilded  frames  in  the  hall  of  a 
viceroy. 

The  elegance  of  her  culture  excites  sincere  admira- 
tion in  a  country  where  women  are  illiterate;  and  the 
breadth  of  her  understanding  is  such  as  to  take  in  the 
details  of  government.  She  chooses  her  agents  with 
rare  judgment,  and  shifts  them  from  pillar  to  post, 
so  that  they  may  not  forget  their  dependence  on  her 
will.  Without  a  parallel  in  her  own  country,  she  is 
sometimes  compared  with  Catherine  II.  of  Russia. 
She  has  the  advantage  in  the  decency  of  her  private 
life;  for  though  she  is  said  to  have  had  favourites 
they  have  never  dared  to  boast  of  her  favours,  nor  has 
a  curious  public  been  able  to  identify  them. 

Before  taking  leave  of  her  Majesty,  the  reader 
would  perhaps  like  to  know  her  name  in  order  to  feel 
better  acquainted.  It  is:  Tse  Hi  Tuanyin  Kangyi 
Chaoyu  Chuangcheng  Shoukung  Chinhien  Chunghi. 
This  is  not  the  name  by  which  her  mother  called 
her,  but  a  string  of  honorific  epithets,  to  which  the 
Academy,  after  anxious  deliberation,  adds  a  fresh 
couple  every  five  or  ten  years. 

Let  the  Dowager  be  taken  as  a  type  of  the  Manchu 
woman.  The  Emperor,  though  handsome  and  intelli- 
gent, is  too  small  for  a  representative  of  a  robust  race. 
TuanFang,  the  High  Commissioner,  is  a  more  favourable 
specimen.  The  Manchus  are  in  general  taller  than  the 
Chinese;  and  both  in  physical  and  intellectual  qualities 
they  prove  that  their  branch  of  the  family  is  far  from 
effete. 

Prince  Kung,  who  for  fifteen  years  presided  over  the 
imperial    cabinet,    was   tall,    handsome   and   urbane. 


THE  MANCHUS  277 

Despite  the  disadvantages  of  an  education  in  a  narrow- 
minded  court,  he  displayed  a  breadth  and  capacity 
of  a  high  order.  Prince  Ching,  who  succeeded  him  in 
1875,  though  less  attractive  in  person,  is  not  deficient 
in  that  sort  of  astuteness  that  passes  for  statesmanship. 
What  better  evidence  than  that  he  has  kept  himself  on 
top  of  a  rolling  log  for  thirty  years?  To  keep  his  position 
through  the  dethronement  of  the  Emperor  and  the  con- 
vulsions of  the  Boxer  War  required  agility  and  adapta- 
bility of  no  mean  order.  Personally  I  have  seen  much 
of  both  princes.  They  are  abler  men  than  one  would 
expect  to  find  among  the  offshoots  of  an  Oriental 
court. 

Wensiang,  who  from  the  opening  of  Peking  to  his 
death  in  1875  bore  the  leading  part  in  the  conduct  of 
foreign  affairs,  showed  great  ability  in  piloting  the 
state  through  rocks  and  breakers.  His  mental  power 
greatly  impressed  all  foreigners,  while  it  secured  him 
an  easy  ascendency  among  his  countrymen.  Such 
men  are  sure  to  be  overloaded  with  official  duties  in  a 
country  like  China.  Physically  he  was  not  strong; 
and  on  one  occasion  when  he  came  into  the  room 
wheezing  with  asthma  he  said  to  me:  "You  see  I  am 
like  a  small  donkey,  with  a  tight  collar  and  a  heavy 
load."  The  success  of  Prince  Kung's  administration 
was  largely  due  to  Wensiang.  Paochuin,  minister  of 
finance,  and  member  of  the  Inner  Council,  was  dis- 
tinguished as  a  literary  genius.  Prince  Kung  de- 
lighted on  festive  occasions  to  call  him  and  Tungsuin  to 
a  contest  in  extempore  verse.  To  enter  the  lists  with 
a  noted  scholar  and  poet  like  Tung,  showed  how  the 
Manchus  have  come  to  vie  with  the  Chinese  in  the 


278  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

refinements  of  literary  culture.  I  remember  him  as  a 
dignified  greybeard,  genial  and  jocose.  On  the  fall  of 
the  Kung  ministry,  he  doffed  his  honours  in  three 
stanzas,  which  contain  more  truth  than  poetry: 

"Through  Hfe,  as  in  a  pleasing  dream, 
Unconscious  of  my  years, 
In  Fortune's  smile  to  bask  I  seem; 
Perennial,  Spring  appears. 

"Alas!  Leviathan  to  take 
Defies  the  fisher's  art; 
From  dreams  of  glory  I  awake, — 
My  youth  and  power  depart. 

"That  loss  is  often  gain's  disguise 
May  us  for  loss  console. 
My  fellow-sufferers,  take  advice 
\  And  keep  "our  reason  whole." 

In  more  than  one  crisis,  the  heart  of  the  nation  has 
cleaved  to  the  Manchu  house  as  the  embodiment  of 
law  and  order.  The  people  chose  to  adhere  to  a  toler- 
ably good  government  rather  than  take  the  chance  of 
a  better  one  emerging  from  the  strife  of  factions. 

Three  things  are  required  to  confirm  their  loyalty: 
(i)  the  abolition  of  tonsure  and  pigtail,  (2)  the  aban- 
donment of  all  privileges  in  examinations  and  in  the 
distribution  of  offices,  (3)  the  removal  of  all  impedi- 
ments in  the  way  of  intermarriage. 

This  last  has  been  recently  authorised  by  proclama- 
tion. It  is  not  so  easy  for  those  who  are  in  possession 
of  the  loaves  and  fishes  to  admit  others  to  an  equal 
share.     If  to  these  were  added  the  abolition  of  a  de- 


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THE  MANCHUS  279 

grading  badge,  the  Manchu  dynasty  might  hope  to 
be  perpetual,  because  the  Manchus  would  cease  to 
exist  as  a  people. 

CONCLUSIONS 

1.  More  than  once  I  have  demanded  the  expulsion 
of  the  Manchus,  and  the  partition  of  China.  That 
they  deserved  it  no  one  who  knows  the  story  of  1900 
will  venture  to  deny.  It  was  not  without  reason  that 
Mene  tekel  and  Ichabod  were  engraved  on  the  medal 
commemorating  the  siege  in  Peking.  If  I  seem  to 
recant,  it  is  in  view  of  the  hopeful  change  that  has 
come  over  the  spirit  of  the  Manchu  Government. 
Under  the  leadership  of  Dowager  Empress  and  Em- 
peror, the  people  are  more  likely  to  make  peaceful 
progress  than  under  a  new  dynasty  or  under  the  Polish 
policy  of  division. 

2.  The  prospect  of  admission  to  the  full  privileges 
of  a  member  of  the  brotherhood  of  nations  will  act  as 
an  incentive  to  improvement.  But  the  subjection  of 
foreigners  to  Chinese  jurisdiction  ought  not  to  be  con- 
ceded without  a  probation  as  long  and  thorough  as 
that  through  which  Japan  had  to  pass.  In  view  of 
the  treachery  and  barbarism  so  conspicuous  in  1900 — 
head-hunting  and  edicts  to  massacre  foreigners — a 
probation  of  thirty  years  would  not  be  too  long.  Dur- 
ing that  time  the  reforms  in  law  and  justice  should  be 
fully  tested,  and  the  Central  Government  should  be 
held  responsible  for  the  repression  of  every  tendency 
to  anti-foreign  riots. 

A  government  that  encourages  Boxers  and  other 
rioters  as  patriots  does  not  merit  an  equal  place  in  the 


28o  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

congress  of  nations.  The  alternative  is  the  "gunboat 
poHcy,"  according  to  which  foreign  powers  will  ad- 
minister local  punishment.  If  the  mother  of  the  house 
will  not  chastise  her  unruly  children,  she  must  allow 
her  neighbours  to  do  it. 

3.  Prior  to  legal  reform,  and  at  the  root  of  it,  the 
adoption  of  a  constitution  ought  to  be  insisted  on.  In 
such  constitution  a  leading  article  ought  to  be  not 
toleration,  but  freedom  of  conscience.  As  long  as 
China  looks  on  native  Christians  as  people  who  have 
abjured  their  nationality,  so  long  will  they  be  objects 
of  persecution;  self-defence  and  reprisals  will  keep 
the  populace  in  a  ferment,  and  peace  will  be  impos- 
sible. If  China  is  sincere  in  her  professions  of  reform, 
she  will  follow  the  example  of  Japan  and  make  her 
people  equal  in  the  eye  of  the  law  without  distinction 
of  creed. 

4.  All  kinds  of  reform  are  involved  in  the  new 
education,  and  to  that  China  is  irrevocably  committed. 
Reenforced  by  railroad,  telegraph,  and  newspaper, 
the  schoolmaster  will  dispel  the  stagnation  of  remote 
districts,  giving  to  the  whole  people  a  horizon  wider 
than  their  hamlet,  and  thoughts  higher  than  their 
hearthstone.  Animated  by  sound  science  and  true 
religion,  it  will  not  be  many  generations  before  the 
Chinese  people  will  take  their  place  among  the  leading 
nations  of  the  earth. 


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APPENDIX 
I. 

THE  AGENCY   OF    MISSIONARIES  IN    THE 
DIFFUSION     OF     SECULAR    KNOWL- 
EDGE IN  CHINA* 

While  the  primary  motive  of  missionaries  in  going 
to  China  is,  as  in  going  to  other  countries,  the  hope 
of  bringing  the  people  to  Christ,  the  incidental  results 
of  their  labours  in  the  diffusion  of  secular  knowledge 
have  been  such  as  to  confer  inestimable  benefit  on  the 
world  at  large  and  on  the  Chinese  people  in  particular. 
This   is  admitted  by  the  recent    High    Commission. f 

It  was  in  the  character  of  apostles  of  science  that 
Roman  Catholic  missionaries  obtained  a  footing  in 
Peking  three  centuries  ago,  and  were  enabled  to  plant 
their  faith  throughout  the  provinces.  Armed  with 
telescope  and  sextant  they  effected  the  reform  of  the 
Chinese  calendar,  and  secured  for  their  religion  the 
respect  and  adherence  of  some  of  the  highest  minds  in 
the  Empire.  So  firmly  was  it  rooted  that  churches 
of  their  planting  were  able  to  survive  a  century  and 
a  half  of  persecution.  Their  achievements,  recorded 
in  detail  by  Abbe  Hue  and  others,  fill  some  of  the 

*  This  paper  was  originally  written  for  Dr.  Dennis's  well-known  work 
on  The  Secular  Benefits  of  Christian  Missions.  As  it  now  appears  it  is 
not  a  mere  reprint,  it  having  been  much  enlarged  and  brought  down  to 
date. 

fSee  page  263. 

aSz 


282  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

brightest  pages  in  the  history  of  missions,  I  shall 
not  enlarge  on  them  in  this  place,  as  my  present  task 
is  to  draw  attention  to  the  work  of  Protestant 
missions. 

A    CENTURY    OF    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

It  is  not  too  much  to  claim  for  these  last  that  for 
a  century  past  they  have  been  active  intermediaries, 
especially  between  the  English-speaking  nations  and 
the  Far  East.  On  one  hand,  they  have  supplied  such 
information  in  regard  to  China  as  was  indispensable 
for  commercial  and  national  intercourse,  while  on  the 
other  they  have  brought  the  growing  science  of  the 
Western  world  to  bear  on  the  mind  of  China.  Not 
only  did  Dr.  Morrison,  who  led  the  way  in  1807,  give 
the  Chinese  the  first  translation  of  our  Holy  Scriptures ; 
he  was  the  very  first  to  compile  a  Chinese  dictionary 
in  the  English  language. 

THE    PIONEER   OF   AMERICAN    MISSIONS 

It  was  not  until  1838  that  America  sent  her  pioneer 
missionary  in  the  person  of  Dr.  Bridgman.  Besides 
cooperating  with  others  in  the  revision  of  Morrison's 
Bible,  or,  more  properly,  in  making  a  new  version, 
Bridgman  won  immortality  by  originating  and  con- 
ducting the  Chinese  Repository,  a  monthly  magazine 
which  became  a  thesaurus  of  information  in  regard 
to  the  Chinese  Empire. 

THE    PRESS — A   MISSIONARY   FRANKLIN 

The  American  Board  showed  their  enlightened 
policy  by  establishing  a  printing-press  at  Canton,  and 


^b^aM^ 


OF  THE 


UNIVERSITY 


nf 


AGENCY  OF  MISSIONARIES  283 

in  sending  S.  Wells  Williams  to  take  charge  of  it,  in 
1833.  John  R.  Morrison,  son  of  the  missionary,  had, 
indeed,  made  a  similar  attempt;  but  from  various 
causes  he  had  felt  compelled  to  relinquish  the  enter- 
prise. From  the  arrival  of  Williams  to  the  present 
day  the  printing-press  has  shown  itself  a  growing 
power — a  lever  which,  planted  on  a  narrow  fulcrum 
in  the  suburb  of  a  single  port,  has  succeeded  in  moving 
the   Eastern   world. 

The  art  of  printing  was  not  new  to  the  Chinese. 
They  had  discovered  it  before  it  was  dreamed  of  in 
Europe;  but  with  their  hereditary  tendency  to  run 
in  ruts,  they  had  continued  to  engrave  their  characters 
on  wooden  blocks  in  the  form  of  stereotype  plates. 
With  divisible  types  (mostly  on  wood)  they  had 
indeed  made  some  experiments;  but  that  improved 
method  never  obtained  currency  among  the  people. 
It  was  reserved  for  Christian  missions  to  confer  on 
them  the  priceless  boon  of  the  power  press  and  metallic 
types.  What  Williams  began  at  Canton  was  per- 
fected at  Shanghai  by  Gamble  of  the  Presbj^erian 
Board,  who  multiplied  the  fonts  and  introduced  the 
process  of  electrotyping. 

Shut  up  in  the  purlieus  of  Canton,  it  is  astonishing 
how  much  Dr.  Williams  was  able  to  effect  in  the  way 
of  making  China  known  to  the  Western  world.  His 
book  on  "The  Middle  Kingdom,"  first  published  in 
1848,  continues  to  be,  after  the  lapse  of  half  a  century, 
the  highest  of  a  long  list  of  authorities  on  the  Chinese 
Empire.  Beginning  like  Benjamin  Franklin  as  a 
printer,  like  Franklin  he  came  to  perform  a  brilliant 
part  in  the  diplomacy  of  our  country,  aiding  in  the 


284  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

negotiation  of  a  new  treaty  and  filling  more  than  once 
the  post  of  charge  d'affaires. 

EXPANSION    OF   THE    WORK 

The  next  period  of  missionary  activity  dates  from 
the  treaty  of  Nanking,  which  put  an  end  to  the  Opium 
War,  in  1842.  The  opening  of  five  great  seaports  to 
foreign  residence  was  a  vast  enlargement  in  comparison 
with  a  small  suburb  of  Canton;  and  the  withdrawal 
of  prohibitory  interdicts,  first  obtained  by  the  French 
minister  Lagrene,  invited  the  efforts  of  missionary 
societies  in  all  lands.  In  this  connection  it  is  only 
fair  to  say  that,  in  i860,  when  the  Peking  expedition 
removed  the  remaining  barriers,  it  was  again  to  the 
French  that  our  missionaries  were  indebted  for  access 
to  the  interior. 

MEDICAL    WORK 

From  the  earliest  dawn  of  our  mission  work  it  may 
be  affirmed  that  no  sooner  did  a  chapel  open  its  doors 
than  a  hospital  was  opened  by  its  side  for  the  relief 
of  bodily  ailments  with  which  the  rude  quackery  of 
the  Chinese  was  incompetent  to  deal.  Nor  is  there 
at  this  day  a  mission  station  in  any  part  of  China  that 
does  not  in  this  way  set  forth  the  practical  charity 
of  the  Good  Samaritan.  This  glorious  crusade  against 
disease  and  death  began,  so  far  as  Protestants  are 
concerned,  with  the  Ophthalmic  Hospital  opened  by 
Dr.  Peter  Parker  at  Canton  in  1834. 

MEDICAL   TEACHING 

The  training  of  native  physicians  began  at  the  same 
date;  and  those  who  have  gone  forth  to  bless  their 


AGENCY  OF  MISSIONARIES  285 

people  by  their  newly  acquired  medical  skill  may 
now  be  counted  by  hundreds.  In  strong  contrast 
with  the  occult  methods  of  native  practitioners, 
neither  they  nor  their  foreign  teachers  have  hidden 
their  light  under  a  bushel.  Witness  the  Union  Medi- 
cal College,  a  noble  institution  recently  opened  in 
Peking  under  the  sanction  and  patronage  of  the  Im- 
perial Government.  A  formal  despatch  of  the  Board 
of  Education  (in  July,  1906)  grants  the  power  of  con- 
ferring degrees,  and  guarantees  their  recognition  by 
the  state.  For  many  years  to  come  this  great  school 
is  likely  to  be  the  leading  source  of  a  new  faculty. 

THE   SEEDS    OF   A   NEW   EDUCATION 

Not  less  imperative,  though  not  so  early,  was  the 
establishment  of  Christian  schools.  Those  for  girls 
have  the  merit  of  being  the  first  to  shed  light  on  the 
shaded  hemisphere  of  Chinese  society.  Those  for 
boys  were  intended  to  reach  all  grades  of  life;  but 
their  prime  object  was  to  raise  up  a  native  ministry, 
not  merely  to  cooperate  with  foreign  missions,  but 
eventually  to  take  the  place  of  the  foreign  missionary. 

THE   EARLIEST   UNION    COLLEGE 

One  of  the  earliest  and  most  successful  of  these  light- 
houses was  the  Tengchow  College  founded  by  Dr. 
C.  W.  Mateer.  It  was  there  that  young  Chinese  were 
most  thoroughly  instructed  in  mathematics,  physics, 
and  chemistry.  So  conspicuous  was  the  success  of 
that  institution  that  when  the  Government  opened  a 
university  in  Peking,  and  more  recently  in  Shantung, 


286  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

it  was  in  each  case  to  Tengchow  that  they  had  re- 
course for  native  teachers  of  science.  From  that 
school  they  obtained  text-books,  and  from  the  same 
place  they  secured  (in  Dr.  Hayes)  a  president  for  the 
first  provincial  university  organised  in  China. 

METHODIST   EPISCOPAL   UNIVERSITY    IN    PEKING 

The  missions  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
have  of  late  taken  up  the  cause  of  education  and 
carried  it  forward  with  great  vigour.  Not  to  speak 
of  high  schools  for  both  sexes  in  Fukien,  they  have 
a  flourishing  college  in  Shanghai,  and  a  university  in 
the  imperial  capital  under  the  presidency  of  H.  H. 
Lowry.  Destroyed  by  the  Boxers  in  1900,  that 
institution  has  now  risen  phoenix-like  from  its  ashes 
with  every  prospect  of  a  more  brilliant  future  than 
its  most  sanguine  friends  ever  ventured  to  anticipate. 

AMERICAN    BOARD   COLLEGE   AT   TUNGCHOW 

A  fine  college  of  the  American  Board  at  Tungchow, 
near  the  capital,  met  the  same  fate  and  rose  again 
with  similar  expansion.  Dr.  Sheffield,  its  president, 
has  made  valuable  contributions  to  the  list  of  educa- 
tional text-books. 

These  great  schools,  together  with  the  Medical 
College  of  the  London  Mission,  above  referred  to,  and 
a  high  school  of  the  United  States  Presb3rterians, 
have  formed  a  system  of  cooperation  which  greatly 
augments  the  efficiency  of  each.  Of  this  educational 
union  the  chief  cornerstone  is  the  Medical  College. 

A  similar  cooperative  union  between  the  English 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


AGENCY  OF  MISSIONARIES  287 

Baptists  and  American  Presbyterians  is  doing  a  great 
work  at  Weihien,  in  Shantung.  I  speak  of  these  be- 
cause of  that  most  notable  feature — union  international 
and  interdenominational.  Space  would  fail  to  enumer- 
ate a  tithe  of  the  flourishing  schools  that  are  aiding 
in  the  educational  movement;  but  St.  John's  College, 
at  Shanghai  (U.  S.  Episcopal),  though  already  men- 
tioned, claims  further  notice  because,  as  we  now  learn, 
it  has  been  given  by  the  Chinese  Government  the 
status  of  a  university. 

PREPARATION    OF    TEXT-BOOKS 

Schools  require  text-books;  and  the  utter  absence 
of  anything  of  the  kind,  except  in  the  department  of 
classical  Chinese,  gave  rise  to  early  and  persistent 
efforts  to  supply  the  want.  Manuals  in  geography 
and  history  were  among  the  first  produced.  Those 
in  mathematics  and  physics  followed;  and  almanacs 
were  sent  forth  yearly  containing  scientific  informa- 
tion in  a  shape  adapted  to  the  taste  of  Chinese  readers 
— alongside  of  religious  truths.  Such  an  annual 
issued  by  the  late  Dr.  McCartee,  was  much  sought 
for.  A  complete  series  of  text-books  in  mathematics 
was  translated  by  Mr.  Wylie,  of  the  London  Mission; 
and  text-books  on  other  subjects,  including  geology, 
were  prepared  by  Messrs.  Muirhead,  Edkins,  and 
Williamson.  At  length  the  task  of  providing  text- 
books was  taken  in  hand  by  a  special  committee, 
and  later  on  by  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful 
Knowledge,  now  under  the  direction  of  the  Rev. 
Dr.  Richard. 


288  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

So  deeply  was  the  want  of  text-books  felt  by  some 
of  the  more  progressive  mandarins  that  a  corps  of 
translators  was  early  formed  in  connection  with  one 
of  the  government  arsenals — a  work  in  which  Dr. 
John  Fryer  has  gained  merited  renown.  Those  trans- 
lators naturally  gave  prominence  to  books  on  the  art 
of  war,  and  on  the  politics  of  Western  nations,  the  one- 
sided tendency  of  their  publications  serving  to  empha- 
sise the  demand  for  such  books  as  were  prepared  by 
missionaries. 

TeXjt-books  on  international  law  and  political  econ- 
omy were  made  accessible  to  Chinese  literature  by 
Dr.  W.  A.  P.  Martin,  who,  having  acted  as  interpreter 
to  two  of  the  American  embassies,  was  deeply  impressed 
by  the  ignorance  of  those  vital  subjects  among  Chinese 
mandarins. 

On  going  to  reside  in  Peking,  in  1863,  Dr.  Martin 
carried  with  him  a  translation  of  Wheaton,  and  it  was 
welcomed  by  the  Chinese  Foreign  Office  as  a  timely 
guide  in  their  new  situation.  He  followed  this  up 
by  versions  of  Woolsey,  Bluntschli  and  Hall.  He  also 
gave  them  a  popular  work  on  natural  philosophy — 
not  a  translation — ^together  with  a  more  extended 
work  on  mathematical  physics.  Not  only  has  the 
former  appeared  in  many  editions  from  the  Chinese 
press,  but  it  has  been  often  reprinted  in  Japan;  and 
to  this  day  maintains  its  place  in  the  favour  of  both 
empires.  To  this  he  has  lately  added  a  text-book 
on  mental  philosophy. 

A  book  on  the  evidences  of  Christianity,  by  the 
same  author,  has  been  widely  circulated  both  in  China 
and  in  Japan.     Though  distinctly  religious  in  aim,  it 


AGENCY  OF  MISSIONARIES  289 

appeals  to  the  reader's  taste  for  scientific  knowledge, 
seeking  to  win  the  heathen  from  idolatry  by  exhibiting 
the  unity  and  beauty  of  nature,  while  it  attempts  to 
show  the  reasonableness  of  our  revealed  religion. 

THREE    PRESIDENTS    OF    GOVERNMENT    COLLEGES 

It  is  not  without  significance  that  the  Chinese 
have  sought  presidents  for  their  highest  schools  among 
the  ranks  of  Protestant  missionaries.  Dr.  Ferguson 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Mission  was  called  to  the 
presidency  of  the  Nanyang  College  at  Shanghai;  Dr. 
Hayes,  to  be  head  of  a  new  university  in  Shantung; 
and  Dr.  Martin,  after  serving  for  twenty-five  years 
as  head  of  the  Diplomatic  College  in  Peking,  was,  in 
1898,  made  president  of  the  new  Imperial  University. 
His  appointment  was  by  decree  from  the  Throne, 
published  in  the  Government  Gazette;  and  mandarin 
rank  next  to  the  highest  was  conferred  on  him.  On 
terminating  his  connection  with  that  institution,  after 
it  was  broken  up  by  Boxers,  he  was  recalled  to  China 
to  take  charge  of  a  university  for  the  two  provinces  of 
Hupeh  and  Hunan. 

CREATORS   OF    CHINESE   JOURNALISM 

In  the  movement  of  modem  society,  no  force  is 
more  conspicuous  than  journalism.  In  this  our  mis- 
sionaries have  from  the  first  taken  a  leading  part,  as 
it  was  they  who  introduced  it  to  China.  At  every 
central  station  for  the  last  half-century  periodicals 
have  been  issued  by  them  in  the  Chinese  lai^uage. 


290  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

The  man  who  has  done  most  in  this  Hne  is  Dr.  Y.  J. 
Allen,  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South.  He 
has  devoted  a  lifetime  to  it,  besides  translating 
numerous  books. 

Formerly  the  Chinese  had  only  one  newspaper  in 
the  empire — the  Peking  Gazette,  the  oldest  journal  in 
the  world.  They  now  have,  in  imitation  of  foreigners, 
some  scores  of  dailies,  in  which  they  give  foreign  news, 
and  which  they  print  in  foreign  type.  The  highest 
mandarins  wince  under  their  stinging  criticisms. 

THEY  LEAD  A  VERNACULAR  REVOLUTION 

It  is  one  of  the  triumphs  of  Christianity  to  have 
given  a  written  form  to  the  language  of  modern  Europe. 
It  is  doing  the  same  for  heathen  nations  in  all  parts  of 
the  earth.  Nor  does  China  offer  an  exception.  The 
culture  for  which  her  learned  classes  are  noted  is  wholly 
confined  to  a  classic  language  that  is  read  everywhere, 
and  spoken  nowhere,  somewhat  as  Latin  was  in  the 
West  in  the  Middle  Ages,  save  that  Latin  was  really 
a  tongue  capable  of  being  employed  in  speech,  whereas 
the  classical  language  of  China  is  not  addressed  to  the 
ear  but  to  the  eye,  being,  as  Dr.  Medhurst  said,  "an 
occulage,  not  a  language." 

The  mandarin  or  spoken  language  of  the  north  was, 
indeed,  reduced  to  writing  by  the  Chinese  themselves; 
and  a  similar  beginning  was  made  with  some  of  the 
southern  dialects.  In  all  these  efforts  the  Chinese 
ideographs  have  been  employed ;  but  so  numerous  and 
disjointed  are  they  that  the  labour  of  years  is  required 
to  get  a  command  of  them  even  for  reading  in  a  ver- 


AGENCY  OF  MISSIONARIES  291 

nacular  dialect.  In  all  parts  of  China  our  missionaries 
have  rendered  the  Scriptures  into  the  local  dialects, 
so  that  they  may  be  understood  when  read  aloud, 
and  that  every  man  "  may  hear  in  his  own  tongue  the 
wonderful  works  of  God."  In  some  places  they  have 
printed  them  in  the  vernacular  by  the  use  of  Chinese 
characters.  Yet  those  characters  are  clumsy  instru- 
ments for  the  expression  of  sounds;  and  in  several 
provinces  our  missionaries  have  tried  to  write  Chinese 
with  Roman  letters. 

The  experiment  has  proved  successful  beyond  a 
doubt.  Old  women  and  young  children  have  in  this 
way  come  to  read  the  Scriptures  and  other  books  in  a 
few  days.  This  revolution  must  go  forward  with  the 
spread  of  Christianity;  nor  is  it  too  much  to  expect 
that  in  the  lapse  of  ages,  the  hieroglyphs  of  the  learned 
language  will  for  popular  use  be  superseded  by  the  use 
of  the  Roman  alphabet,  or  by  a  new  alphabet  recently 
invented  and  propagated  by  officials  in  Peking. 

In  conclusion:  Our  missionaries  have  made  our 
merchants  acquainted  with  China ;  and  they  have  made 
foreign  nations  known  to  the  Chinese,  They  have 
aided  our  envoys  in  their  negotiations;  and  they  have 
conferred  on  the  Chinese  the  priceless  boon  of  scientific 
text-books.  Also  along  with  schools  for  modem  edu- 
cation,   they  have  introduced  hospitals  for  the  relief 

of  bodily  suffering. 

W.  A.  P.  M. 
Peking, 

Aug.  4,  1906. 


II. 

UNMENTIONED  REFORMS* 

The  return  of  the  Mission  of  Inquiry  has  quickened 
our  curiosity  as  to  its  results  in  proposition  and  in  enact- 
ment. All  well-wishers  of  China  are  delighted  to 
learn  that  the  creation  of  a  parliament  and  the  substi- 
tution of  constitutional  for  autocratic  government 
are  to  have  the  first  place  in  the  making  of  a  New 
China.  The  reports  of  the  High  Commissioners  are 
not  yet  before  the  public,  but  it  is  understood  that 
they  made  good  use  of  their  time  in  studying  the 
institutions  of  the  West,  and  that  they  have  shown 
a  wise  discrimination  in  the  selection  of  those  which 
they  recommend  for  adoption.  There  are,  however, 
three  reforms  of  vital  importance,  which  have  scarcely 
been  mentioned  at  all,  which  China  requires  for  full 
admission  to  the  comity  of  nations. 

I.  A   CHANGE    OF   COSTUME 

During  their  tour  no  one  suggested  that  the  Chinese 
costume  should  be  changed  nor  would  it  have  been 
polite  or  politic  to  do  so.  But  I  do  not  admire  either 
the  taste  or  the  wisdom  of  those  orators  who,  in  wel- 
coming the  distinguished  visitors,  applauded  them  for 
their  graceful  dress  and  stately  carriage.  If  that 
indiscreet  flattery  had   any  effect   it  merely  tended 

*  Written  by  the  author  for  the  North-China  Daily  News. 

292 


UNMENTIONED   REFORMS  293 

to  postpone  a  change  which  is  now  in  progress.  All 
the  soldiers  of  the  Empire  will  ere  long  wear  a  Western 
uniform,  and  all  the  school  children  are  rapidly  adopt- 
ing a  similar  uniform.  To  me  few  spectacles  that  I 
have  witnessed  are  so  full  of  hope  for  China  as  the 
display  on  an  imperial  birthday,  when  the  military 
exhibit  their  skilful  evolutions  and  their  Occidental 
uniform,  and  when  thousands  of  school  children  ap- 
pear in  a  new  costume,  which  is  both  becoming  and 
convenient.  But  the  Coiirt  and  the  mandarins  cling 
to  their  antiquated  attire.  If  the  peacock  wishes  to 
soar  with  the  eagle,  he  must  first  get  rid  of  his  cumber- 
some tail. 

This  subject,  though  it  savours  of  the  tailor  shop, 
is  not  unworthy  the  attention  of  the  grand  council  of 
China's  statesmen.  Has  not  Carlyle  shown  in  his 
"Sartor  Resartus"  how  the  Philosophy  of  Clothes 
is  fundamental  to  the  history  of  civilisation?  The 
Japanese  with  wonderful  foresight  settled  that  question 
at  the  very  time  when  they  adopted  their  new  form 
of  government. 

When  Mr.  Low  was  U.  S.  Minister  in  Peking  some 
thirty  years  ago,  he  said  to  the  writer  "Just  look  at 
this  tomfoolery!"  holding  up  the  fashion  plates  repre- 
senting the  new  dress  for  the  diplomatic  service  of 
Japan.  Time  has  proved  that  he  was  wrong,  and 
that  the  Japanese  were  right  in  adopting  a  new  uniform, 
when  they  wished  to  fall  in  line  with  nations  of  the 
West.  With  their  old  shuffling  habiliments  and  the 
cringing  manners  inseparable  from  them,  they  never 
could  have  been  admitted  to  intercourse  on  easy  terms 
with  Western  society. 


294  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

The  mandarin  costume  of  China,  though  more  im- 
posing, is  not  less  barbaric  than  that  of  Japan;  and 
the  etiquette  that  accompanies  it  is  wholly  irreconcil- 
able with  the  usages  of  the  Western  world.  Imagine 
a  mandarin  doffing  his  gaudy  cap,  gay  with  tassels, 
feathers,  and  ruby  button,  on  meeting  a  friend,  or 
pushing  back  his  long  sleeves  to  shake  hands!  Such 
frippery  we  have  learned  to  leave  to  the  ladies;  and 
etiquette  does  not  require  them  to  lay  aside  their  hats. 

Quakers,  like  the  mandarins,  keep  their  hats  on  in 
public  meetings;  and  the  oddity  of  their  manners  has 
kept  them  out  of  society  and  made  their  following 
very  exiguous.  Do  our  Chinese  friends  wish  to  be 
looked  on  as  Quakers,  or  do  they  desire  to  fraternise 
freely  with  the  people  of  the  great  West? 

Their  cap  of  ceremony  hides  a  shaven  pate  and 
dangling  cue,  and  here  lies  the  chief  obstacle  in  the 
way  of  the  proposed  reform  in  style  and  manners. 
Those  badges  of  subjection  will  have  to  be  dispensed 
with  either  formally  or  tacitly  before  the  cap  that 
conceals  them  can  give  way  to  the  dress  hat  of  European 
society.  Neither  graceful  nor  convenient,  that  dress 
hat  is  not  to  be  recommended  on  its  own  merits, 
but  as  part  of  a  costume  common  to  all  nations 
which  conform  to  the  usages  of  our  modern  civi- 
lisation. 

It  must  have  struck  the  High  Commissioners  that, 
wherever  they  went,  they  encountered  in  good  society 
only  one  general  type  of  costume.  Nor  would  it  be 
possible  for  them  to  advise  the  adoption  of  the  costume 
of  this  or  that  nationality — a  general  conformity  is 
all  that  seems  feasible  or  desirable.     Will  the  Chinese 


UNMENTIONED  REFORMS  295 

cling  to  their  cap  and  robes  with  a  death  grip  Hke 
that  of  the  Korean  who  jumped  from  a  railway  train 
to  save  his  high  hat  and  lost  his  life?  As  they  are 
taking  passage  on  the  great  railway  of  the  world's 
progress,  will  they  not  take  pains  to  adapt  themselves 
in  every  way  to  the  requirements  of  a  new  era? 

2.    POLYGAMY 

We  have  as  yet  no  intimation  what  the  Reform 
Government  intends  to  do  with  this  superannuated 
institution.  Will  they  persist  in  burning  incense 
before  it  to  disguise  its  ill-odour,  or  will  they  bury  it 
out  of  sight  at  once  and  for  ever? 

The  Travelling  Commissioners,  whose  breadth  and 
acumen  are  equally  conspicuous,  surely  did  not  fail 
to  inquire  for  it  in  the  countries  which  they  visited.  Of 
course,  they  did  not  find  it  there;  but,  as  with  the 
question  of  costume,  the  good  breeding  of  their  hosts 
would  restrain  them  from  offering  any  suggestion 
touching  the  domestic  life  of  the  Chinese. 

The  Commissioners  had  the  honour  of  presentation 
to  the  Queen-Empress  Alexandra.  Fancy  them  asking 
how  many  subordinate  wives  she  has  to  aid  her  in 
sustaining  the  dignity  of  the  King-Emperor!  They 
would  learn  with  surprise  that  no  European  sovereign, 
however  lax  in  morals,  has  ever  had  a  palace  full  of 
concubines  as  a  regular  appendage  to  his  regal  menage ; 
that  for  prince  and  people  the  ideal  is  monogamy; 
and  that,  although  the  conduct  of  the  rich  and  great  is 
often  such  as  to  make  us  blush  for  our  Christian  civili- 
sation, it  is  true  this  day  that  the  crowned  heads  of 
Europe  are  in  general  setting  a  worthy  example  of 


296  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

domestic  morals.  "Admirable!"  respond  the  Com- 
missioners; "our  ancient  sovereigns  were  like  that, 
and  our  sages  taught  that  there  should  be  'Ne  Wu 
Yuen  Nu,  Wai  wu  Kwang-fu'  (in  the  harem  no  pining 
beauty,  outside  no  man  without  a  mate).  It  is  the 
luxury  of  later  ages  that  keeps  a  multitude  of  women 
in  seclusion  for  the  pleasure  of  a  few  men,  and  leaves 
the  common  man  without  a  wife.  We  heartily  approve 
the  practice  of  Europe,  but  what  of  Africa?" 

"There  the  royal  courts  consider  a  multitude  of 
wives  essential  to  their  grandeur,  and  the  nobles  reckon 
their  wealth  by  the  number  of  their  wives  and  cows. 
The  glory  of  a  prince  is  that  of  a  cock  in  a  barn-yard 
or  of  a  bull  at  the  head  of  a  herd.  Such  is  their  ideal 
from  the  King  of  Dahomey  with  his  bodyguard  of 
Amazons  to  the  Sultan  of  Morocco  and  the  Khedive 
of  Egypt.  Not  only  do  the  Mahommedans  of  Asia 
continue  the  practice — they  have  tried  to  transplant 
their  ideal  paradise  into  Europe.  Turkey,  decayed  and 
rotten,  with  its  black  eunuchs  and  its  Circassian  slave 
girls,  stands  as  an  object-lesson  to  the  whole  world." 

"  We  beg  your  pardon,  we  know  enough  about  Asia; 
but  what  of  America — does  polygamy  flourish  there?" 

"It  did  exist  among  the  Peruvians  and  Aztecs  be- 
fore the  Spanish  conquest,  but  it  is  now  under  ban  in 
every  country  from  pole  to  pole.  Witness  the  Mor- 
mons of  Utah!  They  were  refused  admission  into  the 
American  Union  as  long  as  they  adhered  to  the  Oriental 
type  of  plural  marriage." 

"  Ah!  We  perceive  you  are  pointing  to  the  Mormons 
as  a  warning  to  us.  You  mean  that  we  shall  not  be 
admitted  into  the  society  of  the  more  civilised  nations 


UNMENTIONED  REFORMS  297 

as  long  as  we  hold  to  polygamy.  Well!  Our  own 
sages  have  condemned  it.  It  has  a  long  and  shameful 
record;  but  its  days  are  numbered.  It  will  do  doubt 
be  suppressed  by  our  new  code  of  laws." 

This  imaginary  conversation  is  so  nearly  a  transcript 
of  what  must  have  taken  place,  that  I  feel  tempted  to 
throw  the  following  paragraphs  into  the  form  of  a 
dialogue.  The  dialogue,  however,  is  unavoidably  prolix, 
and  I  hasten  to  wind  up  the  discussion. 

With  reference  to  the  Mormons  I  may  add  that  at  the 
conference  on  International  Arbitration  held  at  Lake 
Mohonk  last  July,  there  were  present  Jews,  Quakers, 
Protestants  and  Roman  Catholics,  but  no  Mormons 
and  no  Turks.  Creeds  were  not  required  as  credentials, 
but  Turk  and  Mormon  did  not  think  it  worth  while 
to  knock  at  the  door.  Both  are  objects  of  contempt, 
and  no  nation  whose  family  life  is  formed  on  the  same 
model  can  hope  to  be  admitted  to  full  fraternity  with 
Western  peoples. 

The  abominations  associated  with  such  a  type  of 
society  are  inconsistent  with  any  but  a  low  grade 
of  civilisation — ^they  are  eunuchs,  slavery,  unnatural 
vice,  and,  more  than  all,  a  general  debasement  of  the 
female  sex.  In  Chinese  society,  woman  occupies  a 
shaded  hemisphere — not  inaptly  represented  by  the 
dark  portion  in  their  national  symbol  the  Yinyang-tse 
or  Diagram  of  the  Dual  principles.  So  completely  has 
she  hitherto  been  excluded  from  the  benefits  of  edu- 
cation that  a  young  man  in  a  native  high  school  re- 
cently began  an  essay  with  the  exclamation — "I  am 
glad  I  am  not  a  Chinese  woman.  Scarcely  one  in  a 
thousand  is  able  to  read!" 


2  98  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

If  "Knowledge  is  power,"  as  Bacon  said,  and  Con- 
fucius before  him,  what  a  source  of  weakness  has  this 
neglect  of  woman  been  to  China.  Happily  she  is  not 
excluded  from  the  new  system  of  national  education, 
and  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  with  the  reign  of 
ignorance  polygamy  will  also  disappear  as  a  state  of 
things  repugnant  to  the  right  feeling  of  an  intelligent 
woman.  But  would  it  not  hasten  the  enfranchisement 
of  the  sex,  and  rouse  the  fair  daughters  of  the  East  to  a 
nobler  concept  ion  of  human  life,  if  the  Empress-Dowager 
would  issue  a  decree,  placing  concubinage  under  the 
ban  of  law?  Nothing  would  do  more  to  secure  for 
China  the  respect  of  the  Western  world. 

3.      DOMESTIC    SLAVERY 

Since  writing  the  first  part  of  this  paper,  I  have 
learned  that  some  of  the  Commissioners  have  expressed 
themselves  in  favour  of  a  change  of  costume.  I  have 
also  learned  that  the  regulation  of  slavery  is  to  have  a 
place  in  the  revised  statutes,  though  not  referred  to 
by  the  Commissioners.  Had  this  information  reached 
me  earlier,  it  might  have  led  me  to  omit  the  word 
"  unmentioned "  from  my  general  title,  but  it  would 
not  have  altered  a  syllable  in  my  treatment  of  the 
subject. 

Cheering  it  is  to  the  well-wishers  of  China  to  see  that 
she  has  a  government  strong  enough  and  bold  enough 
to  deal  with  social  questions  of  this  class.  How  urgent 
is  the  slave  question  may  be  seen  from  the  daily  items 
in  your  own  columns.  What,  for  example,  was  the 
lady  from  Szechuen  doing  but  carrying  on  a  custom- 


UNMENTIONED  REFORMS  299 

ary  form  of  the  slave  traffic?  What  was  the  case  of 
those  singing  girls  under  the  age  of  fifteen,  of  whom  you 
spoke  last  week,  but  a  form  of  slavery?  Again,  by 
way  of  climax,  what  will  the  Western  world  think  of 
a  country  that  permits  a  mistress  to  beat  a  slave  girl  to 
death  for  eating  a  piece  of  watermelon — as  reported 
by  your  correspondent  from  Hankow  ?  The  triviality 
of  the  provocation  reminds  us  of  the  divorce  of  a  wife 
for  offering  her  mother-in-law  a  dish  of  half- cooked 
pears.  The  latter,  which  is  a  classic  instance,  is  ex- 
cused on  the  ground  of  filial  duty,  but  I  have  too  much 
respect  for  the  author  of  the  "Hiaoking,"  to  accept 
a  tradition  which  does  a  grievous  wrong  to  one  of  the 
best  men  of  ancient  times.  The  tradition,  however 
unfounded,  may  serve  as  a  guide  to  public  opinion. 
It  suggests  another  subject,  which  we  might  (but  will 
not)  reserve  for  another  section,  viz.,  the  regulation  of 
divorce  and  the  limitation  of  marital  power.  It  is 
indeed  intimately  connected  with  my  present  topic, 
for  what  is  wife  or  concubine  but  a  slave,  as  long  as  a 
husband  has  power  to  divorce  or  sell  her  at  will — with 
or  without  provocation? 

Last  week  an  atrocious  instance,  not  of  divorce,  but 
of  wife-murder,  occurred  within  bow-shot  of  my 
house.  A  man  engaged  in  a  coal-shop  had  left  his  wife 
with  an  aunt  in  the  country.  The  aunt  complained 
of  her  as  being  too  stupid  and  clumsy  to  earn  a  living. 
Her  brutal  husband  thereon  took  the  poor  girl  to  a 
lonely  spot,  where  he  killed  her,  and  left  her  unburied. 
Returning  to  the  coal-shop,  he  sent  word  to  his  aunt 
that  he  was  ready  to  answer  for  what  he  had  done,  if 
called  to  account.     "Has  he  been  called  to  account?" 


300  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

I  enquired  this  morning  of  one  of  his  neighbours. 
"Oh  no!  was  the  reply;  it's  all  settled;  the  woman  is 
buried,  and  no  inquiry  is  called  for."  Is  not  woman  a 
slave,  though  called  a  wife,  in  a  society  where  such 
things  are  allowed  to  go  with  impunity?  Will  not 
the  new  laws,  from  which  so  much  is  expected,  limit 
the  marriage  relation  to  one  woman,  and  make  the 
man,  to  whom  she  is  bound,  a  husband,  not  a  master? 

Confucius,  we  are  told,  resigned  office  in  his  native 
state  when  the  prince  accepted  a  bevy  of  singing 
girls  sent  from  a  neighbouring  principality.  The  girls 
were  slaves  bought  and  trained  for  their  shameful 
profession,  and  the  traffic  in  girls  for  the  same  service 
constitutes  the  leading  form  of  domestic  slavery  at 
this  day — so  little  has  been  the  progress  in  morals, 
so  little  advance  toward  a  legislation  that  protects 
the  life  and  virtue  of  the  helpless ! 

But  the  slave  traffic  is  not  confined  to  women;  any 
man  may  sell  his  son;  and  classes  of  both  sexes  are 
found  in  all  the  houses  of  the  rich.  Prasdial  servitude 
was  practised  in  ancient  times,  as  it  was  in  Europe  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  and  in  Russia  till  a  recent  day.  We 
read  of  lands  and  labourers  being  conferred  on  court 
favourites.  How  the  system  came  to  disappear  we 
need  not  pause  to  inquire.  It  is  certain,  however, 
that  no  grand  act  of  emancipation  ever  took  place 
in  China  like  that  which  cost  Lincoln  his  life,  or  that 
for  which  the  good  Czar  Alexander  II.  had  to  pay  the 
same  forfeit.  Russia  is  to-day  eating  the  bitter  fruits 
of  ages  of  serfdom;  and  the  greatest  peril  ever  encoun- 
tered by  the  United  States  was  a  war  brought  on  by 
negro  slavery. 


UNMENTIONED   REFORMS  301 

The  form  of  slavery  prevailing  in  China  is  not  one 
that  threatens  war  or  revolutions;  but  in  its  social 
aspects  it  is  worse  than  negro  slavery.  It  depraves 
morals  and  corrupts  the  family,  and  as  long  as  it  exists, 
it  carries  the  brand  of  barbarism.  China  has  great 
men,  who  for  the  honour  of  their  country  would  not  be 
afraid  to  take  the  matter  in  hand.  They  would,  if 
necessary,  imitate  Lincoln  and  the  Czar  Alexander  to 
effect  the  removal  of  such  a  blot. 

It  is  proposed,  we  are  told,  to  limit  slavery  to  minors 
— ^freedom  ensuing  on  the  attainment  of  majority. 
This  would  greatly  ameliorate  the  evil,  but  the  evil 
is  so  crying  that  it  demands  not  amelioration,  but 
extinction.  Let  the  legislators  of  China  take  for  their 
model  the  provisions  of  British  law,  which  make  it 
possible  to  boast  that  "as  soon  as  a  slave  touches 
British  soil  his  fetters  fall."  Let  them  also  follow  that 
lofty  legislation  which  defines  the  rights  and  provides 
for  the  well-being  of  the  humblest  subject.  Let  the 
old  system  be  uprooted  before  a  new  one  is  inaugurated, 
otherwise  there  is  danger  that  the  limiting  of  slavery 
to  minors  will  leave  those  helpless  creatures  exposed 
to  most  of  the  wrongs  that  accompany  a  lifelong 
servitude. 

The  number  and  extent  of  the  reforms  decreed  or 
effected  are  such  as  to  make  the  present  reign  the 
most  illustrious  in  the  history  of  the  Empire.  May 
we  not  hope  that  in  dealing  with  polygamy  and  do- 
mestic slavery,  the  action  of  China  will  be  such  as  to 
lift  her  out  of  the  class  of  Turkey  and  Morocco  into 
full  companionship  with  the  most  enlightened  nations 
of  Europe  and  America. 


III. 

A  NEW  OPIUM  WAR 

The  fiat  has  gone  forth — ^war  is  declared  against 
an  insidious  enemy  that  has  long  been  ex- 
hausting the  resources  of  China  and  sapping  the 
strength  of  her  people.  She  has  resolved  to  rid  her- 
self at  once  and  forever  of  the  curse  of  opium.  The 
home  production  of  the  drug,  and  all  the  ramifications 
of  the  vice  stand  condemned  by  a  decree  from  the 
throne,  followed  by  a  code  of  regulations  designed  not 
to  limit,  but  to  extirpate  the  monster  evil. 

In  this  bold  stroke  for  social  reform  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  Government  is  supported  by  the  best 
sentiment  of  the  whole  country.  Most  Chinese  look 
upon  opium  as  the  beginning  of  their  national  sorrows. 
In  1839  it  involved  them  in  their  first  war  with 
the  West ;  and  that  opened  the  way  for  a  series  of  wars 
which  issued  in  their  capital  being  twice  occupied  by 
foreign  forces. 

Their  first  effort  to  shake  off  the  incubus  was  accom- 
panied by  such  displays  of  pride,  ignorance  and  un- 
lawful violence  that  Great  Britain  was  forced  to  make 
war — not  to  protect  an  illegal  traffic,  but  to  redress  an 
outrage  and  to  humble  a  haughty  empire.  In  this 
renewed  onslaught  the  Chinese  have  exhibited  so  much 
good  sense  and  moderation  as  to  show  that  they  have^ 
learned  much  from  foreign  intercourse  during  the  sixty- 
seven  years  that  have  intervened. 

302 


A   NEW   OPIUM   WAR  303 

Without  making  any  appeal  to  the  foreigner,  they 
courageously  resolved  to  deal  with  the  evil  in  its 
domestic  aspects.  Most  of  the  mandarins  are  in- 
fected by  it;  and  the  licensed  culture  of  the  poppy 
has  made  the  drug  so  cheap  that  even  the  poor  are 
tempted  to  indulge. 

The  prohibitory  edict  asserts  that  of  the  adult 
population  30  or  40  per  cent,  are  under  the  influence 
of  the  seductive  poison.  This,  by  the  way,  gives  an 
enormous  total,  far  beyond  any  of  the  estimates  of 
foreign  writers. 

Appalled  by  the  signs  of  social  decadence  the  more 
patriotic  of  China's  statesmen  were  not  slow  to  per- 
ceive that  all  attempts  at  reform  in  education,  army, 
and  laws  must  prove  abortive  if  opium  were  allowed 
to  sap  the  vigour  of  the  nation.  "You  can't  carve  a 
piece  of  rotten  wood,"  says  Confucius.  Every  scheme 
for  national  renovation  must  have  for  its  basis  a 
sound  and  energetic  people.  It  was  this  depraved 
taste  that  first  made  a  market  for  the  drug;  if  that 
taste  can  be  eradicated  the  trade  and  the  vice  must 
disappear  together,  with  or  without  the  concurrence 
of  Great  Britain. 

Great  Britain  was  not,  however,  to  be  ignored. 
Besides  her  overshadowing  influence  and  her  com- 
mercial interests  vast  and  varied,  is  she  not  mistress 
of  India,  whose  poppy-fields  formerly  supplied  China 
and  are  still  sending  to  the  Chinese  market  fifty  thou- 
sand chests  per  annum  ?  No  longer  an  illegal  traffic,  this 
importation  is  regulated  by  treaty.  Concerted  action 
might  prevent  complications  and  tend  to  insure  success. 
The  new  British  Government  was  approached  on  the 


304  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

subject.  Fortunately,  the  Liberals  being  in  power,  it 
was  not  bound  by  old  traditions. 

A  general  resolution  passed  the  House  of  Commons 
without  a  dissentient  voice,  expressing  sympathy  with 
China  and  a  willingness  to  adopt  similar  measures  in 
India.  "When  asked  in  the  House  what  steps  had 
been  taken  to  carry  out  the  resolution  for  the  abolition 
of  the  opium  traffic  between  India  and  China, 
Mr.  Morley  replied,  that  he  understood  that  China 
was  contemplating  the  issue  of  regulations  restrict- 
ing the  importation,  cultivation,  and  consumption 
of  opium.  He  had  received  no  communication  from 
China;  but  as  soon  as  proposals  were  submitted  he 
was  prepared  to  consider  them  in  a  sympathetic  spirit. 
H.  B.  M.'s  minister  in  Peking  had  been  instructed 
to  commimicate  with  the  Chinese  Government  to  that 
effect." 

The  telegram  containing  these  words  is  dated  London, 
October  30.  The  imperial  edict,  which  initiated  what 
many  call  "  the  new  crusade, "  was  issued  barely  forty 
days  before  that  date  (viz.,  on  September  20).  Let 
it  also  be  noted  that  near  the  end  of  August  a  memorial 
of  the  Anti-Opium  League,  suggesting  action  on  the 
part  of  the  Government,  was  sent  up  through  the 
Nanking  viceroy.  It  was  signed  by  1,200  missionaries 
of  different  nations  and  churches.  Is  it  not  pfobable 
that  their  representations,  backed  by  the  viceroy, 
moved  the  hand  that  sways  the  sceptre? 

The  decree  runs  as  follows: 

"Since  the  first  prohibition  of;^opium,  almost  the  whole  of  China  has 
been  flooded  with  the  poison.  Smokers  of  opium  have  wasted  their  time, 
neglected  their  employment,  ruined  their  constitutions,  and  impoverished 
their  households.      Thus    for    several   decades   China  has   presented   a 


A   NEW  OPIUM   WAR  305 

spectacle  of  increasing  poverty  and  weakness.  It  rouses  our  indignation 
to  speak  of  the  matter.  The  Oourt  is  now  determined  to  make  China 
powerful ;  and  it  is  our  duty  to  urge  our  people  to  reformation  in  this 
respect. 

'*We  decree,  therefore,  that  within  a  limit  of  ten  years  this  harmful 
muck  be  fully  and  entirely  wiped  away.  W9  further  command  the 
Council  of  State  to  consider  means  for  the  strict  prohibition  both  of 
opium-smoking  and  of  poppy-growing." 

Among  the  regulations  drawn  up  by  the  Council  of 
State  are  these: 

That  all  smokers  of  opium  be  required  to  report 
themselves  and  to  take  out  licenses. 

Smokers  holding  office  are  divided  into  two  classes. 
Those  of  the  junior  class  are  to  cleanse  themselves  in 
six  months.  For  the  seniors  no  limit  of  time  is  fixed. 
Both  classes  while  under  medical  treatment  are  to  pay 
for  approved  deputies,  by  whom  their  duties  shall  be 
discharged. 

All  opium  dens  are  to  be  closed  after  six  months. 
These  are  places  where  smokers  dream  away  the  night 
in  company  with  the  idle  and  the  vicious. 

No  opium  lamps  or  pipes  are  to  be  made  or  sold 
after  six  months.  Shops  for  the  sale  of  the  drug  are 
not  to  be  closed  until  the  tenth  year. 

The  Government  provides  medicines  for  the  cure  of 
the  habit. 

The  formation  of  anti-opium  societies  is  encouraged ; 
but  the  members  are  cautioned  not  to  discuss  political 
questions. 

The  question  no  doubt  arises  in  the  mind  of  the 
reader,  Will  China  succeed  in  freeing  herself  from 
bondage  to  this  hateful  vice  ?  It  is  ea§y  for  an  autocrat 
to  issue  a  decree,  but  not  easy  to  secure  obedience.   It 


3o6  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

is  encouraging  to  know  that  this  decisive  action  is 
favoured  by  all  the  viceroys  —  Yuan,  the  youngest  and 
most  powerftil,  has  already  taken  steps  to  put  the  new 
law  in  force  in  the  metropolitan  province.  A  flutter 
of  excitement  has  also  shown  itself  in  the  ranks  of 
Indian  traders  —  Parsees,  Jews,  and  Mohammedans  — 
who  have  presented  a  claim  for  damages  to  their 
respectable  traffic. 

On  the  whole  we  are  inclined  to  believe  in  the  good 
faith  of  the  Chinese  Government  in  adopting  this 
measure,  and  to  augur  well  for  its  success.  Next  after 
the  change  of  basis  in  education,  this  brave  effort  to 
suppress  a  national  vice  ranks  as  the  most  brilliant  in  a 
long  series  of  reformatory  movements. 

Peking,  January,  1907.  W.  A.  P.  M. 


INDEX 


INDEX 


\ 


Adams,  John  Quincy,  on  the 

Opium  War,  153 
Albazin,  Cossack  garrison  cap- 
tured at,  57 
Alphabet,  a  new,  invented  by 

WangChao,  217 
Amherst,     Lord,     decUnes    to 

kneel  to  Emperor,  168 
Amoy,  seaport  in  Fukien  prov- 
ince, 14 
its  grass  cloth  and  peculiar 
sort  of  black  tea,  15 
Anhwei,  province  of,  home  of 

Li  Hung  Chang,  49 
Anti-foot-binding  Society,  sup- 
ported     by      Dowager 
Empress  in  an  edict,  217 
Anti-foreign    Agitation,     244- 
266 
American  influence  in  the 
Far  East   and,  245-251 
"  Appeal  from  the  Lion's  Den, " 

176 
Army,  the  Chinese,  200-202 
Arrow  War,  the,  162-169 

allied    troops    at    Peking, 

168 
Canton  occupied  by  Brit- 
ish troops,  164 
China    abandons  her  long 

seclusion,  169 
crew  of  the  Arrow  executed 

without  trial,  163 
negotiations    of   the    four 
powers  with  China,  165 
seizure  of  the  lorcha.  Arrow, 
162 


Bamboo  tablets,  writings  of 
Confucius  engraved  on, 
106 

Battle  of  the  Sea  of  Japan,  191- 
192 

Bell-tower,  boy's  soul  supposed 
to  be  hovering  in,  21 

Black- haired  race,  Chinese 
style  themselves  the  ,151 

Bowring,  Sir  John,  Governor 
of  Hong  Kong,  and  the 
Arrow  case,  162-163 

Boxer  War,  the,  172-180 
a  Boxer  manifesto,  175 

Boycott,  the,  247,  252,  253,  259 

Bridges,  16,  41,  42 

Bridgman,  Dr.,  pioneer  mission- 
ary to  China,  282 
founds    the    Chinese    Re- 
pository, 282 

Buddhism,     introduction     of, 

into  China,  95 

"Apotheosis    of    Mercy," 

a    legend    of    Northern 

Buddhism,  108 

number       of       Buddhist 

monasteries,  108 
rooted  in  the  minds  of  the 
illiterate,  108 

Burden,  Bishop,  of  the  English 
Church  Mission,  Hang- 
chow,  23 

Burlingame,  Hon.  Anson,  U.  S. 
Minister  to  China,  212 

Cambalu,  Mongol  name  for 
Peking,  59 


309 


3IO 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 


Camoens,  tomb  of,  at  Macao,  9 
Canton,    the    most    populous 

city  of  the  Empire,  9-12 
American     trade     suffers 

most    in    Canton    from 

boycott  of  1905,  13 
averts    bombardment    by 

payment   of   $6,000,000 

ransom,  154 
Christian  college,  10 
cock-fighting  the  popular 

amusement,  10 
crowds  of  beggars,  12 
excellence  of  tea  and  silk 

produced  in  the  vicinity, 

13 
"flower-boats,"  9 

historical  enigma  contests, 

II 

narrowness  of  streets,  1 2 

passion  for  gambling,    11 

Canton  (Kwangtung),  province 

of.  7-13 

Viceroy      of,      has       also 

Kwangsi  under  his  juris- 
diction, 13 
Caravan  Song,  61 
Chang  Chien,  legend  of,  63 
Chang-fi,   rescues   son   of   Liu 
Pi  from  burning  palace, 

114 
Chang  Tien-shi,  arch-magician 

of  Taoism,  109 
Chang    Chi-tung,    Viceroy    of 

Hukwang,   his  life   and 

public  career,  219-241 
first  to  start  the  Emperor 

on  the  path  of  reform 

213 
case  of  Chunghau,  223-224 

his  commercial  develop- 
ments at  Wuchang,  231 

official  interviews  with, 
238-241 


Chang  Yee,  an  able  diplomatist 
of  the  Chou  period,  99 

Chao,  Prince  of,  is  offered 
fifteen  cities  for  a  Kohi- 
noor  belonging  to  him, 
98 

Chau-siang  subjugates  Tung- 
chou-Kiun,  last  mon- 
arch of  the  Chou  dy- 
nasty, 99 

Chef 00  (Chifu),  port  in  Shan- 
tung province,  32 

Chehkiang,  province  of,  small- 
est of  the  eighteen  prov- 
inces, 17-24 

Cheng-wang,  "the  completer," 
a    ruler    of    the    Chou 
dynasty,  86-87 
his  successors,  87-88 

Chentung,  Liang,  Sir,  interview 
with  Dr.  Martin  with 
reference  to  the  Exclu- 
sion Laws  and, the  boy- 
cott, 252 

Chin,  one  of  the  Nan-peh  Chao, 
117 

China,  probable  derivation  of 
name,  loi 
agency  of  missionaries  in 
diffusing  secular  knowl- 
edge in,  281-291 
American  exclusion  laws, 

anti-opium  edict,  304-305 

boycott,  247,  252,  253,  259 

condition  after  five  wars, 
181 

displays  of  barbarity  dur- 
ing the  Boxer  War,  180 

eflEect  of  her  defeat  by 
Japan,  171 

effects  of  Russo-Japanese 
War,  193 

eighteen  provinces,  6 


INDEX 


3^1 


China,  five  grand  divisions,  3 
Grand  Canal,  31 
Great  Wall,  4,  31,  32,  loi 
interference   in  Tongking, 

62 
interference  in  Korea,  62 
physiographical    features, 

4 
reforms  in,  196-218 

rivers,  9,  15,  18,  25,41,  52 

sincerity    of    reformatory 

movements,  306 

China  Merchants'  Steam  Navi- 
gation Company,  200 

Chingtu-fu,  capital  of  the  state 
of  Shuh,  113 

Chinhai,  city  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Ningpo,  18 

Chosin,  Prince  of,  196 

Chou     dynasty,     founded    by 
Wen-wang,  84 
annals  of,  84-88,  96,  99 
form        of        government 
praised  by  Confucius,  96 
term  Chung  Kwoh,  "Mid- 
dle   Kingdom,"    origin- 
ates in,  85 

Chou-sin,  brings  ruin  on  the 
house  of  Shang,  sets 
fire  to  his  own  palace, 
and  perishes  in  the 
flames,  81 

Christians,  attitude  of  Chinese 
Grovemment      towards, 
261 
newspapers  and  the  Chris- 
tian faith,  263 

Chu  Fu-tse,  the  philosopher, 
128 

Chu  Hi,  the  Coryphaeus  of  Med- 
iaeval China,  128 

Chu-koh  Liang,  a  peasant  who 
became  minister  to  Liu 
Pi,  1 14-115 


Chuang  Yuen,  Chinese  term  for 
senior  wrangler ;  his  im- 
portance and  privileges, 
123 
Chungchen,  last  of  the  Mings, 
hangs  himself  after  stab- 
bing his  daughter,  139 
Chunghau  and  the  restoration 
of  Hi,  223 
accused    by    Chang    Chi- 
tung,  224 
Chunking,   city   on  the  Yang- 

tse,  51 
Chusan,   Archipelago    and   Is- 
land, 17 
Chu   Yuen  Chang,   Father  of 

the  Mings,  135 
Chwan-siang,  exterminates  the 

house  of  Chou,  99 
Confucius,  birth  and  parentage 
of  89,  90 
account  of  his  education,  90 
describes  himself  as   "edi- 
tor, not  author,"  91 
edits  the  Five  Classics,  92 
Golden  Rule  the  essence  of 

his  teaching,  92 
number  of  his  disciples,  90 
passion  for  music,  91 
search  for  lost  books  by 

Liu- Pang,   106 
tomb  of,  30-31 
worshipped  by  his  people, 

92-93 
writings  burned  and  dis- 
ciples persecuted  by  Shi- 
hwang-ti,  102-103 

Control  of  Chinese  over  for- 
eigners throughout  Em- 
pire,   258 

Corvee,  myriads  of  labourers 
drafted  by ,  for  construc- 
tion of  the  Grand  Canal, 
32 


312 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 


Corvino,  missionary,  133 

his  church  at  Peking  per- 
ishes in  the  overthrow  of 
the  Mongols,  137 

Cotton  produced  in  all  the 
provinces,  3 

Cue,  abolition  of,  requisite  to 
confirm  loyalty  to  Man- 
chus,  278 

Degrees,  literary,  122-123 

Diaz  and  da  Gama,  voyage  to 
India,  136 

Diplomacy, becomes  an  art  un- 
der the  Chou  dynasty,  97 

Diplomatic  College,  209 

Dr.  Martin  president  of, 
209 

''Drinking  Alone  by  Moon- 
light," poem  by  Lipai, 
120 

Eclectic     Commission,     the, 

197-198 
Educational  reforms,   210 

the    Imperial    University, 
210 
Elgin,  Lord,  and  the  Tai-pings, 

161,  166 
Elliott,   Captain   Charles,   and 

the  Opium  War,  154 
Empress    Dowager,    and    the 
Boxer     War,     172-174, 
179-  180 
celebrates   her   seventieth 
birthday      with     ,  great 
pomp,   274 
convert  to  the  policy   of 

progress,  197 
coup  d'etat,  272 
full  name,  276 
parentage,  271 
personal  description  of,2  75 
reactionary  clique  and,  174 


Empress  Dowager,  type  of  the 

Manchu  woman,  276 
England  takes  lease   of   Wei- 

hai-wei,   174 
Eunuchism,   112,  297 
Examinations,  system  of  civil 
service,     instituted    by 
the  Hans,  109 
continued  for  twelve  cen- 
turies, 121 
details  of,  122-124 
developed     under     the 

T'angs,  121 
reforms  in,  213 
Exclusion   laws,    the,    Chinese 
resentment  of,  253 
most  feasible  way  to  deal 

with,  255 
President    Roosevelt    on, 

251 

Factories,    the,    at    Canton, 

150.  152 

Favier,  Bishop,  defends  his 
people  in  the  French 
Cathedral,   Peking,    176 

Fishing,     queer    methods    of, 

Five  dynasties,  the,  factions 
contending  for  the  suc- 
cession on  the  fall  of  the 
house  of  T'ang,  126 

the  later  Liang,  T'ang, 
Ts'in,  Han,  and  Chou 
are  united  after  fifty- 
three  years  in  the  Sung 
dynasty,  126-127 
Foochow  (Fuchau),  on  the 
River  Min,  15 

fine   wall   and   "bridge   of 
ten  thousand  years,"  16 

Kushan.  its  sacred  moun- 
tain, 15 

Manchu  colony,  16 


INDEX 


313 


Formosa,  Island  of,  colonised 

by  people  of  Fukien,  14 

France  takes  lease  of  Kwang- 

chou-wan,  174 
France,  war  with,  169 

allowed  to  retain  Tong- 
king,  170 
French  seize  Formosa,  170 
Fraser,    Consul,    and    Viceroy 
Chang     in    the     Boxer 
War,  227 
Fuchau    (Foochow) ,    province 
of  Fukien,  15 
large  and  prosperous  mis- 
sions in,  16 
Fuhi,  mythical  ruler,  teaches 
his  people  to  rear  do- 
mestic animals,  72 
Fukien  (Fuhkien) ,  province  of, 
14-16 
derivation  of  name,  15 
dialect,  14 

inhabitants     bold      navi- 
gators, 14 
Fungshui,  a  false  science,  202 
Fungtao,  inventor  of  printing, 
116 

Gabet  and  Hue,  French  mis- 
sionaries, reach  Lhasa 
in  Tibet,  63 

Gama,  da,  voyage  to  India,  136 

Gaselee,  General,  and  his  con- 
tingent relieve  the  Brit- 
ish Legation,  Peking,i77 

Genghis  Khan,  splendour  of 
his  court  eclipsed  by 
that  of  his  grandson, 
Kublai  Khan,  131 

Gods,    the    numerous,    of   the 
Chinese,  82 
worship  of  many  of  them 
referred    to    the    Shang 
dynasty,  82 


Gordon,     General,     victorious 

over  the  Tai-pings,  161 

Grand    Canal,    journey    down 

from  Tsi-ning,  31 

as    useful    to-day    as    six 

hundred  years  ago,  31 
constructed     by     Kublai 

Khan,  31-32 
its  object,  32 
Grand    Lama,    the    Buddhist 

pope,  62,  109 
Great  Wall,  the,  origin  of,  4 
an  effete  relic,  3 1 
built  by  Ts'in,  loi 
its      construction      over- 
throws     house     of    its 
builder,  32 
Gunpowder,    early    known    to 
the    Chinese,    but    not 
used  with  cannon,    115 
Spoken    of    by    Arabs    as 
"Chinese  snow,  "115 


Han  dynasty,  founded  by  Liu- 
pang,  105 

annals,  105-1 11 

civil  service  examinations 
inaugurated,  109 

marked  advance  in  belles- 
lettres,  109 
Hangchow,  capital  of  Ch^h- 
kiang  province,  its 
streets  first  trodden 
by  white  men  in  1855, 
22 

its  "bore",  24 

its  magnificent  West  Lake, 
22 

"The  Japanese  are   com- 
ing," 23 
Hanlin  Academy,  contest  be- 
fore   the    Emperor    for 
seats  in,  123 


314 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 


Han  Yu,  eminent  writer  of 
the  eighth  century,  ridi- 
cules the  relics  of  Bud- 
dha, 107 

Hart,  Sir  Robert,  his  opportune 
services  in  the  war  with 
France,  170 
development  of  the  mari- 
time customs,    206-208 
father  of  the  postal  sys- 
tem, 206 
many  honours  of,  207 

Hayes,  Dr.,  president  of  first 
provincial  university  in 
China,   286 

Helungkiang,  province  of  Man- 
churia, 56 

Hia  dynasty,  founded  by  Ta- 
Yii,  78 
together  with  the  Shang 
and  Chou  dynasties, 
known  as  the  San  Tai 
or   San    Wang,    78 

Hien-feng,  Emperor,  escapes 
to  Tartary  and  dies 
there,  168 

Himalayas,      a     bulwark     to 
China,  4 

Hiao  Lien,  literary  degree,  now 
Chu-jin,  equivalent  to 
A.  M.,  122 

Hiunghu,  supposed  ancestors 
of  the  Huns,  iii 

Honan   province   of,  41-44 
agricultural    resources,  42 
bridge    over    the    Hwang 
Ho,  41 

Hong  Kong,  "the  Gibraltar 
of  the  Orient,"  ceded 
to  Great  Britain,  7 
British  make  it  chief 
emporium  of  Eastern 
seas,  8 
rapid  development  of,  8 


Hue  and  Gabet,  French  mis- 
sionaries,   make      their 
way    to    Lhasa,  63 
Hung  Siu-tsuen,  leader  of  the 
Tai-pings,  157 
his  aid  Yang,  158 
invites  his  first  instructor. 
Rev.   Issachar  Roberts, 
to  visit  his  court,  160 
new  method   of  baptism 

160 
raises  the  flag  of  rebellion 
in  Kwangsi,  157 
Huns,  supposed  ancestors  were 

the    Hiunghu,  iii 
Hupeh,  province  of,  45-49 

Hankow,      Hupeh     prov- 
ince, a    Shanghai   on  a 
smaller  scale,  45 
Hanyang,  Hupeh  province, 
a  busy  industrial  centre, 
46 
Wuchang,       capital     of 
Hupeh,  45 
Hwai,    Prince,    regent    during 
minority  of  Shunchi,i4i 
called    Amawang   by    the 

Manchus,  141 
effects  the  subjugation  of 
the  eighteen  provinces, 
and  imposes  the  ton- 
sure and  "pigtail," 
141 
Hwan,  Duke,  of  western  Shan- 
tung, convokes  the 
States- General  nine 

times,  96 
Hwang-ti,  term  for  "Emperor," 
first  used  by  the  builder 
of  the  Great  Wall,  78 
Hwei-ti,   a  ruler   of   the   Han 
dynasty,  106 

IcHANG,cityon  theYang-tse,  15 


INDEX 


315 


Hi,  Chunghau  and  the  restora- 
tion of,  223-224 

Ito,  Marqms,  196 

I-yin,  a  wise  minister  who  had 
charge  of  the  young 
ruler  T'ai-kia,  8o-8i 

Japan,  war  with,  provoked 
by  China's  interference 
in  Korea,    170 

Japanese  expel  Chinese 
from  Korea,  and  take 
part  of  Manchuria,  171 

Japan  left  in  possession  of 
Port  Arthur  and  Liao- 
tung,  171 

Russia  is  envious  and  com- 
pels her  to  withdraw,  171 

having     defeated    Russia 
unreservedly       restores 
Manchuria  to  China,  195 
Jews,  of  K'ai-fung-fu,  43 

ancestors  of,  reach  China 
by  way  of  India,  43 

Shanghai,  help  their  K'ai- 
fung-fu  brethren,  44 
Jin-hwang,    Ti^n-hwang,    and 
Ti-hwang,    three  myth- 
ical rulers,  71 

K'ai-fung-fu,     formerly     the 
capital  under  Chou  and 
Sung  dynasties,  42 
visit  to  the  Jews  of,  43 

Kairin,  province  of  Manchuria, 

Kalgan,   Mongolia,   a  caravan 

terminal,  58,  61 

Kanghi,  the  greatest  monarch 

in    the    history    of    the 

Empire,  142 

alienated  by  the  pope,  144 

patron  of  missionaries,  142 


Kanghi,  progress  of  Christianity 
during  his  reign,  143 

Kang  Yuwei,  urges  reform  on 
the  Emperor,  213 

Kansuh,  province  of,  compar- 
atively barren,  and  cli- 
mate unfavourable  to 
agriculture,  55 

Kao-tsung,  son  of  Tai-tsung, 
raises  Wu,  one  of  his 
father's  concubines,  to 
the  rank  of  empress,  121 

Ketteler,  Baron  von,  killed  dur- 
ing siege  in  Peking,  176 

Kiachta,  a  double  town  in 
Manchuria,  58 

Kiak'ing,  succeeds  on  the  ab- 
dication  of   his   father, 
Kienlung,  144 
a  weak  and  dissolute  mon- 
arch, 145 

Kiangsu  province,  25-29 

derivation  of  name,  25 

Kiao-Chao  (Kiau-Chau),  port 
occupied  by  Germans, 
30.  165 

Kiayi,  an  exiled  statesman, 
dates  a  poem  from 
Changsha,  no 

Ki6,  last  king  of  the  Hia  dy- 
nasty,  his  excesses,    80 

Kien  Lung,  emperor  poet,  lines 
inscribed  by  him  on 
rock  at  Patachu,  35 
abdicates,  after  a  reign  of 
sixty  years,  for  the  rea- 
son that  he  did  not  wish 
to  reign  longer  than  his 
grandfather,  144 
adds    Turkestan    to    the 

empire,   144 
dynasty  reaches  the  acme 
of  splendour  in  his  reign, 
144 


3i6 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 


Kin  Tartars,  obtain  possession 
of  Peking,  and  push  their 
way  to  K'ai-fung-fu,  the 
Emperor  retiring  to 
Nanking,  129 

Ean  Tartars,  the,  140 

Kingdoms,  the  three,  Wei,  Wu, 
and  Shuh,  112- 113 

King  Sheng  Tau,  annotator  of 
popular  historical  novel, 

113 

Kinsha,  "River  of  Golden 
Sands,"   52 

Komura,  Baron,  and  Ports- 
mouth treaty,  193 

Korea,  the  bone  of  contention 
between  Japan  and 
Russia,  182,  183,  186, 
192 

Kuanyin  Pusa,  a  legend  of, 
"The  Apotheosis  of 
Mercy,"  108 

Kublai  Khan,  absorbs  China, 

131 
Kung,  Prince,  and  the  Empress 

Dowager,  273 
disgraced  and  confined  in 

his  palace,  273 
personal      characteristics, 

277 
restored  to  favour  but  not 
to  joint  regency,  273 
Kuropatkin,  General,  and  the 
Russo-Japanese       War, 
185-192 
Kwangsi,     province     of,     sub- 
ordinate to  Canton,  13 
in  an  almost  chronic  state 
of  rebellion,  13 
Kwangsu,    Emperor,    and   the 
Empress  Dowager,  172, 

173 
his  desire  for  reforms,  197 


Kwangsu,  imprisoned  in  a  se- 
cluded palace,  173,  174 
influenced  by  Kang  Yuwei 

173 
Kwangtung  (Canton),  province 

of,  7-13 
Kweichau,    province    of,    the 

poorest      province       of 

China,  52 
one-half     its     population 

aborigines,  52 
Kweilang,     secretary     to    the 

Empress,  272 
prompts   Prince   Kung  to 

strike  for  his  life,  273 

Lao-tse,  founder  of  Taoism, 
his  life  and  influence,  94 

Lhasa,  treaty  of,  62 

Li  and  Yu,  two  bad  kings  of 
the  house  of  Chou,  88 

Liang,  one  of  the  Nan-peh 
Chao,  116 

Liang  Ting  Fen,  letter  to  Dr. 
Martin  requesting  his 
good  offices  with  Presi- 
dent Roosevelt,  252-253 

Liaoyang,  battle  of,  187 

Lienchow,  attack  on  Americans 
at,  248,  255 

Lien  P'o,  a  general  of  Chao,  who 
threatens  to  kill  the  en- 
voy   Lin    at    sight,    98 
makes    friends    with    his 
adversary,  99 

Li   Hung  Chang,   a  native   of 
Anhwei,  49 
preeminent  in  the  work  of 

reform,  212 
sent  to  Japan  to  sue  for 
peace  he  is  shot  by  an 
assassin,  171 
wins      earldom      through 
Gordon's  victory,  161 


INDEX 


317 


Li  Ling,  a  commander  for 
whom  Sze-ma  Ts'ien 
stood  sponsor,  and  who 
surrendered  to  the  en- 
emy, no 

Lin,  Commissioner,  and  the 
opium  traffic,  152 

Lin  Sian  Ju,  a  brave  envoy, 
98 

Lineivitch,  General,  and  the 
Russo-Japanese  War, 
190-192 

Lipai,  the  Pope  of  Chinese 
Hterature,  119 

Li-Sze,  chancellor  of  Shi-hwang- 
ti,  denounces  the  works 
of  Confucius  to  that 
ruler,  and  causes  them 
to  be  burned,  102 

Little,  Mrs.  Archibald,  and 
the  Anti-foot-binding 
Society,  217 

Liu-pang  founds  the  Han  dy- 
nasty, 105 

Liu  Pi  founds  the  state  of 
Shuh,  113 

Li  Yuen,  assassinates  Yang-ti 
and  sets  up  the  T'ang 
dynasty,  118 

Lo  Kwan-chung,  author  of  a 
popular  historical  novel, 

113 
Lo-yang,  capital  of  the    state 

of  Wei,  112 

Lu,  Empress,  holds  the  Empire 

in    absolute    subjection 

for  eight  years,  106 


Macao,  Portuguese  town  of,  8 
burial  place  of  Camoens 
and  Robert  Morrison,  8 

McCartee,  Dr.,  annual  issued 
by,  287 


Manchuria,  3 

consists  of  three    regions 

or   provinces    under  one 

governor-general,     56 

home  of  the  Manchus,  56 

ignorance   of  Manchus  in 

their    original    habitat, 

57 
Japan  takes  possession  of 

parts  of,  171 

population  and  products, 

57 
restored     by     Japan     to 

China,   195 
Russia  occupies  the  very 
positions  from  which  she 
compelled      Japan      to 
withdraw,   171 
sacred  city  of  Mukden,  56 
Manchus,    the,    ignorance    of 
those  remaining  in  Man- 
churia, 57 
give    to    China    a    better 
government    than    any 
of  her  native  dynasties, 
142 
the    Normans    of     China, 

267-280 
they  settle  at  Mukden  and 
await  an  opportunity  to 
descend  on  China,  140 
Marco  Polo.     See   Polo 
Maritime  customs,  the,  206-208 
Sir    Robert    Hart's    long 
and    valuable    services, 
206-209 
Martin,  Dr.  W.  A.  P.,  head  of 
the   Tung- wen   College, 
209 
in  siege  at  Peking,  176,  177 
president  of  the  Imperial 
University,  210 
Mateer,  Dr.  C.  W.,  founds Teng- 
chow  College,  285 


3i8 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 


Meadows,  Consul  T.  T.,  reports 
in   favour   of   the   Tai- 
pings,  159 
Medhurst,  Dr.,  his  description 
of  the  Chinese  Classical 
language,  290 
Mencius,    more    eloquent    but 
less  original  than  Con- 
fucius, 93 
his  tribute  to  Confucius,  94 
owed  much  to  his  mother's 
training,  93 
Merchant  marine,  the,  200 
Mings,  last  of,  stabs  daughter 
and  hangs  himself,  139 
Ming-ti,  sends  embassy  to  India 
to      import      Buddhist 
books  and  bonzes,   107 
Mining  enterprises,  202 
Min  River,  1 5 

Missions,  development  of,  264 
Minister  Rockhill's  address 
upon,  266 
Missionaries,    attacks    on,    40, 
180,  248,  260,  261,    262 
agency  of,  in  the  diffusion 
of    secular    knowledge, 
263-291 
apostles  of  science,  263 
creators  of  Chinese  jour- 
nalism^ 290 
medical  work,  284 
lead  a  vernacular  revolu- 
tion, 290 
preparation  of  text-books, 

287 
presidents  of  government 

colleges,   289 
teaching    and    preaching, 
263 
Mongolia,  the  largest  division 
of  Tartary,  57,  61 
contribution  to  the  luxuries 
of  the  metropolis,  50 


Mongolia,  inhabitants  nomad- 
ic, 58 
has  only  three  towns,  58 
Russians  "came  lean  and 

went  away  fat,"  58 
Russians    granted     privi- 
lege of  establishing  an 
ecclesiastical       mission, 

57 
Mongols,     liable     to     military 

service,  but   prohibited 

from      doing      garrison 

duty  in  China,   59 
dress,  60 
forty  -  eight       Mongolian 

princes,  59 
Mongol  monks  at  Peking, 

60 
nomadic  wanderings,  58 
princes      visit       Cambalu 

(Peking),  in  winter,  59 
their  camel,  60 
victorious  over  the  Sungs, 

130 
Yuen  or  Mongol  dynasty, 

131-134 

Morrison,  John  R.,  son  of  Dr. 
Morrison  the  mission- 
ary, attempts  to  estab- 
lish a  printing-press, 
283 

Morrison,  Robert,  pioneer  of 
Protestant  missions  to 
China,  tomb  of,  at 
Macao,  9,  282 

Moule,  Bishop,  makes  Hang- 
chow  seat  of  his  diocese, 

23 
Mukden,    city    of,    sacred    to 

every  Manchu,  56 

battle  of,  189 

Mu-wang,   a  Chou  ruler,  who 

seeks  relief  from  ennui 

in  foreign  travel,  87 


INDEX 


319 


Nanking,  chief  city  of  Kiangsu 
province,  25,  26 
called  Kiangning  by   the 

Manchus,  26 
pillaged  by  Tartars,  129 

Nanking,  treaty  of,  7 

Nan-peh  Chao,  "Northern  and 
Southern  Kingdoms ' ' 
four  factions  arising  on 
the  fall  of  the  Tsin 
dynasty,  116 

Napier,  Lord,  appointed  super- 
intendent of  British 
trade  in  China,  153 
arrives  at  Macao  and  an- 
nounces his  appoint- 
ment by  letter  to  the 
prefect  of  Canton,  who 
"tosses  it  back,"  153 
dies  of  chagrin  at  Macao, 

153 
Napoleon,  Louis,  and  Annam, 

165 
Navy,  the  Chinese,  199-200 
"Nest-builder,  The,"  71 
Nevius,  Rev.  J.  L.,  missionary 
at  Hangchow,  23 
at  Chef 00,  where  he  plants 
a    church    and    a    fruit 
garden,  32 
Nevius,  Mrs.,  at  Chef 00,  32 
Newspapers,    reforms    in,    215 
covertly  criticise  Govern- 
ment and  its  agents,  215 
Ningpo,  province  of  Chehkiang, 

its  handsome  people  and 
their  literary  and  com- 
mercial prominence,   20 
residence    of    the    author 
for  ten  years,  20 
Ningpo  River,  18 
Nogi,  General,  and  the  Russo- 
Japanese  War,   188-192 


O'Connor,  Mr.,  British  charg^ 
d'affaires,  179 

Omesham  Mountains,  51 

Opening  of  China,  the,  a  drama 
in  five  acts,  149 
result  of  collisions  between 
Oriental  conservatism 
and  Occidental  progress, 
149,  150 

Opium,  extent  of  trade  in,  303 
20,000  chests  destroyed  at 
request       of       Captain 
Charles  Elliott,  154 

Opium  traffic.  Commissioner 
Lin  directed  by  Em- 
peror Tao  Kwang  to 
abolish  it,  152 
attitude  of  British  Govern- 
ment, 304 
decree    ordering   its   total 

abolition,    304 
regulations  of  Council  of 
State,  305 

Opium  War,  the,  its  causes, 
precipitation,  and  ef- 
fects, 150-162 

Oyama,  Field-marshal,  in  the 
Russo  -  Japanese  War, 
187-192 

P's,  the  three — pen,  paper, 
and  printing,  invention 
of,  116 

Palme rston.  Lord,  invites  co- 
operation of  France, 
Russia  and  the  United 
States  concerning  the 
Arrow  case,  164 

P'an-keng,  of  the  house  of 
Shang,  moves  his  capi- 
tal five  times,  81 

P'anku,  the  "ancient founder," 
71 


320 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 


Paoting-fu,  in  Chihli  province, 
scene  of  martyrdom  of 
missionaries,  40 
Parker,  Dr.   Peter,  missionary 

at  Canton,  284 
Parkes,  Consul  and  the  Arrow 

case,  162,  163,  164 
Patachu,  summer  resort  near 
Peking,  34-35 
its    eight    Buddhist    tem- 
ples, 35 
Pearl  River,  9 

Peking,    northern    capital    of 
China,  34 
approaches  to  new  foreign 

quarter  fortified,  37 
Byron's    lines  on   Lisbon 

applied  to  Peking,  39 
climate    and    low    death- 
rate,  38 
Empress  Dowager's  sum- 
mer residence,  34 
"Forbidden  City,"  37 
French       Cathedral       de- 
fended by  Bishop  Favier 
and  marines,  176 
Legation  Street,  36 
Prospect  or  Palatine  Hill, 

.38 
siege  of  legations,  175 

summer  palaces,  34 

Tai-ping     expedition 

against,   159 

Tartar  and  Chinese  cities, 

35 
Temples  of     Agriculture, 

Heaven  and  Earth,  35, 

36 
Peking    Gazette,    the,       oldest 

journal  in  the  world,  290 
Philosophers     of     the      Sung 

period,     Cheo,     Cheng, 

Chang,    and   Chu,  127- 

128 


Philosophers : 

Chu  Hi,  128 

Wang    Ngan-shi,     econo- 
mist, 128 
Pirates,    attacks    of,    on    Mr. 
Russell  and  the  author, 
18 
Rev.    Walter     Lowrie    is 
drowned  by,  18 
Police,  reforms  in,  218 
Polo,  Marco,  Mattei,  and  Ni- 
colo,  132 
sojourn  in  China,  132 
Port    Arthur    and    Liao-tung, 
171,  174,  182,  184,  186, 
187,  188,  190,  191,  192 
Ports,   five,    opened   to   great 
Britain  at   close  of  the 
Opium  War,  155 
Portsmouth  (N.  H.),  treaty  of, 

192 

Portuguese,  first  ships  of  the, 

appear  at  Canton,   136 

disapprove   missions,    137 

obtain  a  footing  at  Macao, 

137 
secretly     oppose      Dutch 

traders,  137 

Postal  system,  206 

Pottinger,  Sir  Henry,  moder- 
ate conditions  imposed 
by,  at  close  of  Opium 
War,  155,  156 
his  action  compared  with 
that  of  Commodore 
Perry,  156 

Psychology,  Chinese,  its  recog- 
nition of  three  souls,  22 

Punishments,  barbarous,  abol- 
ished, 214 

Putu,  the  sacred  island  of,  18 
its  monasteries,  18 
prevalence    of    piracy    in 
adjacent    waters,    18 


INDEX 


321 


Railways,      King-Han     road 
completed  to   Hankow, 

39 
first    grand    trank    road, 

39 

good  work  of  Belgian  con- 
structors, 39 

influence  of,  on  people  and 
government,  40 

questionable  action  of 
American  company,   40 

reforms  in,  203 
Rankin,  Rev.  Henry,  with  the 
author,   the  first  white 
man    to    enter    Hang- 
chow,  22 
Reading-rooms    (not   libraries, 
but  places  for  reading) 
a   new   institution,    216 
Red-haired,  the,  a  vulgar  des- 
ignation for  Europeans, 

151 
Reed,  Hon,  W.   B.,  American 

Minister  to  China,  and 

the  Arrow  case,  165 

Reforms  in  China,  196-218 

Anti-foot-binding  Society, 
217 

army,  201 

customs,   206 

educational,  213 

Hart,  Sir  Robert,  and,  206 

legal,  204 

merchant    marine,    200 

mining  enterprises,  202 

newspapers,  215 

post  office,  205 

railways,  203 

streets,    218 

telegraph,  214 

Tung-wen  College  and 
The  Imperial  Univers- 
ity, 209-210 

writing,  216 


Reforms,  unmentioned,292,3oi 
a  change  of  costume,  292 
domestic  slavery,  298 
polygamy,  295 
Religions,     the     three,     Con- 
fucianism, Taoism,  and 
Buddhism,  their  charac- 
teristic features,    107 
each  religion  has  a  hier- 
archy, 109 
"Hall   of  the   Three   Re- 
ligions," 108 
Ricci,    after   twenty    years   of 
effort,    effects    an    en- 
trance to  Peking,  138 
Rice,  grown  in  all  the  provinces, 

3 
Richard,  Dr.  and  the  Society 

for  the  Diffusion  of  Use- 
ful Knowledge,  287 
Richthofen.    explorer,    58 
River  traffic,  jiinks  drawn  by 
hundreds  of  coolies,  50 
Rivers,  the  Yang-tse  Kiang,  25 
Hwang  Ho,  41 
Hingpo, 18 
Pearl,  9 

Kinsha,  the  "river  of  gol- 
den sands,"  52 
Min,  15 
Roberts,    Rev.    Issachar,    and 
the   leader   of  the   Tai- 
pings,  160 
is    invited    to    visit    their 
court,  160 
Rockhill,    Mr.,    the    American 
Minister,  and  missionary 
institutions,  266 
Roman   Catholic   missionaries, 
dissensions        in        the 
ranks  of,  143 
Roosevelt,    President,    his    ef- 
forts    to     end     Russo- 
Japanese  War,  193 


322 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 


Roosevelt, awarded  Nobel  peace 
prize,  193 

interview  with  Dr.  Martin 
on   the    subject    of   the 
Exclusion  Laws  and  the 
boycott,  251 
Rozhesvenski,     Admiral,     and 
the   relief  squadron  for 
Port    Arthur,     190-192 
Russell,    Mr.,    and  the  author 
captured     by     pirates, 
18 
Russia,  compels  Japan  to  evac- 
uate Manchuria  and  oc- 
cupies   the     same     dis- 
tricts herself,  171 

designs  on  Korea,  182 

increases  her  forces  in 
Manchuria  during  Boxer 
War,  182 

obtains  lease  of  Port  Ar- 
thur, 174 

schemes  for  conquest,  182, 

183 
surprised  by  Japan's  com- 
mencement of  the  war, 
184 
Russo-Japanese  War,  the,  181- 

195 

Sages    of    China,     the,     Con- 
fucius, 89-93 
Lao-tse,  94 
Mencius,  93-94 

Saghalien,  Island  of,  Japan 
and  Russia  to  divide 
possession  of,  192 

Schaal,  Father,  is  president  of 
Astronomical  Board, 
casts  cannon,  and  builds 
churches      in      Peking, 

M3 
Sea  of  Japan,  Battle  of,   191- 
192 


Seng  Ko  Lin  Sin  (nicknamed 
"Sam  Collinson"  by 
British) ,  Lama  prince 
who  heads  northern 
armies  against  Tai-ping 
rebels,  59,  159 

defeated    by    British    and 
French  before  Peking,  59 
Shang    dynasty,    founded    by 
Shang-tang,  80 

annals  of,  80,  82 

"made  religion  the  basis 
of  education,"  82 
Shanghai,  one  of  the  five  treaty 
ports,  26 

colleges  and  schools,  news- 
papers and  translation 
bureaux,  28 

foreign  Concessions,  opu- 
lent business  houses, 
and  luxurious  mansions, 
27 

leading     commercial    em- 
porium, 26 
Shang-ti     and     Tien,    Roman 
Catholics  and  the  terms, 

143 
Shangyang,  a  statesman  of  the 

Chou  dynasty,  converts 

the  tenure  of  land  into 

fee  simple,  85 

Shansi,  province  of,  54 

prolific  of  bankers,  54 

rich    in    agricultural    and 

mineral  resources,  54 

Shantung,  province  of,  30-32 

apples,  pears,  and  peaches 

grown,  30 

railway  built  by  Germans 

from  the  sea  to  Tsinan- 

fu,  30 

Shanyu,   a  forerunner  of  the 

Grand  Khan  of  Tartary, 

III 


INDEX 


323 


Shaohing,  city,  in  Ch^hkiang 
province  noted  for  its 
rice  wine  and  lawyers,  23 

Sheffield,  Dr.,  president  of 
Tung-chow  College,  286 

Shengking,  province  of  Man- 
churia, 56 

Shensi,  province  of,  earliest 
home  of  the  Chinese,  55 
monument  at  Si-ngan  com- 
memorating the  intro- 
duction of  Christianity 
by  Nestorians,  55 

Shi-hwang-ti,   real  founder  of 

the  Chinese  Empire,  102 

devout  believer  in  Taoism, 

104 
sends    a    consignment    of 
lads  and  lasses  to  Japan, 

103 
though  one  of  the  heroes 
of  history  he  is  execrated 
for  burning  the  writings 
of  Confucius,  102 

Shin-nung,  "divine  husband- 
man," mythical  ruler, 
worshipped  as  the  Ceres 
of  China,  72 

Shu-king,  the,  or  "Book  of 
History,"  one  of  the 
Five  Classics  edited  by 
Confucius,  76 

Shun,  successor  of  Yao,  rejects 
his  own  son  and  leaves 
throne  to  Ta-yii,  74 

Shunteh-fu,  American  mission 
at,  40 

Shun-ti,  last  monarch  of  the 
Yuen  dynasty,  133 

Si-ngan,  city  in  Shensi,  55 
capital  of  the  Chous,  55 
capital  of  the  T'angs,  121 
Empress    Dowager    takes 
refuge  there,  42 


Si-ngan,  monument  commemo- 
rating the  introduction 
of  Christianity  by  Nesto- 
rians, 121 

Sing  Su  Hai,  "Sea  of  Stars," 
cluster  of  lakes  in  Tibet, 
63 

Siun  Kien  founds  the  state  of 
Wu,  112 

Siu-tsai,  literary  degree  equiva- 
lent to  A.  B.,  122 

Smith,  Dr.  Arthur,  and  thanks- 
giving service  at  raising 
of  siege  of  British  Lega- 
tion, Peking,  178 

Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Use- 
ful Knowledge,  266 

Solatium  to  encourage  honesty 
in  public  officials,  208 

Spaniards,  the,  trade  and  rela- 
tions with  China,  137 

St.  John's  College , Shanghai ,287 

Stoessel,  General,  and  his  de- 
fence of  Port  Arthur, 1 88 

"Strange  Stories  of  an  Idle 
Student,"  a  popular 
work  in  Chinese  depict- 
ing conditions  prior  to 
Opium  War,   1 50-1 51 

Streets,  improvement  in  con- 
struction and  protection 
of,  218 

Sii  of  Shanghai,  baptised  by  the 
name  of  Paul  by  Ricci, 
138 
his  daughter  Candida  also 
baptised,  138 

Suchow,  in  Kiangsu,  the  Paris 
of  the  Far  East,  25 
musical  dialect,  of,  26 

Su  Ts'in,  the  patient  diplomat, 
whose  reputation  is 
ruined  by  his  own  pas- 
sions, 99 


324 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 


Sui  dynasty,  the,  founded  by 
Yan     Kien,    lasts    less 
than  thirty  years,  117 
Sundius,  Mr.,  British  consul  at 

Wuhu,  227 
Sung,  one  of  the  Nan-peh  Chao. 

116 
Sung    dynasty,     founded    by 
Chao-kwang-yun,    127 
annals,  127-128 
encroachment       of       the 

Tartars,  127 
rise  of  a  great  school  of 

philosophy,    127-129 
Southern  Sungs,  127 
Superstitions   of  the   Chinese, 
concerning      wandering 
spirits,  21 
Sven  Hedin,  explorer,  58 
Swatow,      Canton      province, 
American  Baptists'  Mis- 
sion at,  15 
Szechuen,  province  of,  50-51 
fratricidal      wars      under 

Ming  dynasty,  51 
great  variety  of  climate,  51 
Szema  Ts'ien,  the  Herodotus  of 
China,  no 
barbarously  treated  by  his 
people,  no 

T'ai-kia,   successor  of  Shang- 
tang,  80 

Tai-ping  Rebellion,  the,  a  result 
of  the  Opium  War,  156 
details  of,  157-162 

Tai-pings,  the,  try  to  establish 
a  new  empire,  the  Tai- 
ping  Tien-kwoh,  158 
commonly  called  "Chang- 
mao,"  long-haired  reb- 
els, owing  to  their  re- 
jection of  the  tonsure 
and  cue,   161 


Tai-pings,    defeated    by    Gor- 
don,  161 

descend  into  the  plains  of 
Hunan,  pillage  three 
cities,  and  capture 
Nanking,  massacring  its 
garrison  of  25,000  Man- 
chus,  158-159 

go  into  winter  quarters, 
and,  dividing  their 
forces,  are  cut  ofE  in 
detail,  159 

hold  Nanking  for  ten 
years,  159 

loose  morals  and  travesty 
of  sacred  things  horri- 
fy Christian  world,  161 

missionaries  attracted  by 
their  profession  of  Chris- 
tianity, 160 

queer  titles  adopted  by ,  1 6 1 

sympathy  for  their  cause 
by  Consul  Meadows,  159 

unsuccessfully  attempt  to 
drive  the  Manchus  from' 
Peking,  159 
Tai-tsung,    second  emperor  of 
the  T'ang  dynasty,  120 
Taiyuan-fu,  missionaries  mur- 
dered at  by  the  gover- 
nor, 180 
Ta-Ki,    a   wicked   woman    by 
whom  Chou-sin  is  said 
to  have   been  led  into 
his  evil  courses,  81 
TaKiang,  "Great  River,"  the 
Chinese    name    for   the 
Yang-tse  Kiang,  28 
Taku,    at   the    mouth   of   the 
Peiho,  T,T, 

capture  of  forts  by  British 
and  French,  repulse  of 
allied  forces  in  following 
year,  2,2> 


INDEX 


325 


Tamerlane,    Mongolian    origin 
of,  61 
bom  in  Turkestan,  61 
Tanao,  a  minister  of  Hwang- 
ti,   author  of  the  cycle 
of  sixty,  77 
T'ang    dynasty,    founded    by 
Li  Yuen,  118 
an  Augustan  age,  119 
annals,  1 19-125 
Tang  Shao-yi,  a  Chinese,  one  of 
two  ministers  appointed 
to  take  charge  of  the  en- 
tire customs  service,  208 
Tao  Kwang,  Emperor,  resolves 
to  put  a  stop  to  opium 
traffic,  152 
Tartars,  encroach  on  the  Flow- 
ery Land,  117 
suspicious  of  other  foreign- 
ers, 151 
Taitary,  Grand  Khan  of,  iii 
Tatnall,  Commodore,  his  kind 

action  at  Taku,  167 
Ta-ts'ing  dynasty,  the,  its  an- 
nals,  140-145 
Ta-yii,  or  Yii  the  Great,  early 
emperor,     subdues    the 
waters  of  a  deluge,  75 
casts  9  brazen  tripods,   79 
departs   from   practice   of 
his     predecessors     and 
leaves  throne  to  his  son, 
76 
devotes  nine  years  to  the 
dredging  and  diking  of 
rivers,   75 
his  acts  and  reign,    78-79 
monuments        commemo- 
rating his  labours,   75 
Telegraph  and  telephone,  intro- 
duction of,  204-205 
Temples  of  Heaven,  Earth  and 
Agriculture,  36 


Teng-chow  College,  founded 
by  Dr.  C.  W.  Mateer, 
285 

Tenney,  Dr.,  and  the  Univer- 
sity of  Tientsin,   213 

Text-books,  prepared  by  mis- 
sionaries— Edkins,  Mar- 
tin, Muirhead,  William- 
son and  Wylie,  287- 
288 

Theatre,  the  Chinese,  114 

Three    Kingdoms,    the,    states 

of  Wei,  Wu  and  Shuh, 

112 

Lo    Kwan-chung,    author 

of  a  historical  novel,  113 

Tibet,  the  land  of  the  Grand 

Lama,    62 

called  by  the  Chinese  "the 

roof  of  the  world,"  63 

Chinese     influence    in     is 

nearly  nil,  62 
explored  by  Hue  and  Ga- 

bet,  63 
mother  of  great  rivers,  63 
polyandry    prevalent,    63 

Tieliang,  a  Manchu,  one  of  two 
ministers  appointed  to 
take  charge  of  the  en- 
tire customs  service, 208 

Tien  and  Shang-ti,  question 
among  Catholics  con- 
cerning the  terms,   143 

Tien  Chu,  substitution  of,  for 
Shang-ti  repulsive  to  pi- 
ous Chinese,  144 

Tien  Ho,  "River  of  Heaven," 
Chinese  term  for  the 
Milky  Way,  63 

Tien-hwang,  Ti-hwang,  and 
Jin-hwang,  three  myth- 
ical rulers  who  reigned 
eighteen  thousand  years 
each,  71 


326 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 


Tiensheng,  Chinese  name  for 
province     of     Yunnan 

52 

Tientsin,    province    of    Chihli. 
rises  anew  from  its  half- 
ruined  condition,  33 
ranks  as  third  of  treaty 

ports,  34 
treaties    of,  166 

Ti-hwang,  Jin-hwang,  andTi^n- 
hwang,  three  mythical 
rulers,  71 

Togo,  Admiral,  in  Russo-Jap- 
anese   War,    184.    185 
188,  191, 192 

Tongking,  French  left  in  pos- 
session of,  170 

Translators,  corps  of.  Dr.  John 
Fryer's  prominent  con- 
nection with,  288 

Tsao  Tsao  founds  the  state  of 
Wei,  112, 

Tsai  Lun,  inventor  of  paper 
116 

Ts'ang-Ki6,  the  Cadmus  of 
China,  author  of  its 
written    characters,    77 

Ts'in   dynasty,      Yin      Cheng 
brings  the  whole  coun- 
try under  his  sway  and 
assumes    title    of    Shi- 
H  w  a  n  g-ti   *'  Emperor 
First,"  loi 
annals  of,  loi— 104 
builds  Great  Wall,  loi 
lasts  for  a  century  and  a 
half,  116 

Ts'in,  Prince  of,  oflfers  fifteen 
cities  for  a  kohinoor,  98 

Tsinan-fu,  railway  from  the 
sea  to,  built  by  the 
Germans,  30 

Tsin-shi,  "  Literary  Doctor," 
degree  of,  123 


Tsungming,   Island  of,  formed 
by    the    waters    of   the 
Yang-tse  Kiang,  28 
and  Tunking    coupled   in 
popular    proverb,    28 

Tsushima,  Battle  of,   191-192 

Tuan  Fang,  governor  of  Hupeh, 
242-243 
favourable   specimen  of  a 
Manchu,  276 

Tuan,  Prince,  father  of  the  heir 
apparent,  174 

Tufu,  poet  of  the  T'ang  dy- 
nasty, 119 

Tung-chi,  Emperor,  death  of, 

273 
Tung-chou-kiun,  last  monarch 
of  the  Chou  dynasty,  99 
Turkestan,  3,  61 

majority    of    the    inhabi- 
tants Mohammedans,  61 
most  of  the  khanates   ab- 
sorbed by  Russia,  61 

Union  Medical  College,  Pe- 
king, 285 

Urga,  Mongolia,  a  shrine  for 
pilgrimage,  58 

Uriu,  Admiral,  in  Russo-Jap- 
anese War,  184 

Verbiest,  the  Jesuit,  made 
president  of  Board  of 
Astronomy,  143 

Wall,  Great,  see  Great  Wall 

Wang  Chao,  invents  new  alpha- 
bet, 217 

Ward,  Frederick  G.,  the  Amer- 
ican, and  the  Tai-ping 
rebellion,   160 

Ward,  Hon.  J.  E.,  American 
minister,  proceeds  to 
Peking  by  land,   167 


INDEX 


327 


Ward,  Hon.  J.  E.,  declines  to 
kneel   to  Emperor,  168 

Wei  J  one  of  the  Nan-peh  Chao, 
116 

Weihien,  in  Shantung,  destined 
to  become  a  railway 
centre,  30 

Weihwei-fu,  city  on  the  border 
of  Chihli  and  Honan,  41 

Wensiang,  success  of  Prince 
Kung's  administration 
largely  due  to  him,  277 
contests  with  Tungsuin  in 
extemporaneous  verse, 
277 

Wen-ti,  "patron  of  letters," 
a  ruler  of  the  house  of 
Han,  107 

Wen-wang,    the    real    founder 
of  the  Chou  dynasty,  84 
encourages  letters,  84 
known  as  a  commentator 
in  the  Yih-king,  84 

Whales,  the  river  near  Hang- 
chow  a  trap  for,  23 

Wheat,  produced  in  all  the 
provinces,  3 

Williams,  Dr.   S.   Wells,  takes 
charge      of      American 
Board  printing  press  at 
Canton,  283 
labours,  283 

"The   Middle   Kingdom," 
283 

Witte,  Count,  and  Portsmouth 
treaty,  193 

Women  in  China,  considered 
out  of  place  in  attempt- 
ing to  govern,  82 

Writing,  reform  in,  216 

new  alphabet  invented,2i7 

Wu,  Empress,  succeeds  Kao- 
tsung  and  reigns  for 
twenty-one    years,    121 


Wu  Pa,  the  five  dictators,  96 
Wu    San-kwei,     a    traitorous 
Chinese   general,  makes 
terms  with  the  Manchus, 
1 40-1 41 
Wu  Ti,  Liang  emperor,  who  be- 
came a  Buddhist  monk, 
117 
Wu-ti,  "the  five  rulers,"  71 
Wu-ting-fang,  Chinese  minister 
at  Washington,  and  le- 
gal reforms,  214 
Wu-wang,    the    martial   king, 
rescues  the  people  from 
the    oppression    of    the 
Shangs,  83 

Xavier,  St.  Francis,  arrives 
at  Macao,  is  not  al- 
lowed to  land,  and  dies 
on  the  Island  of  St. 
John,    138 

Yang,  chief  supporter  of  the 
leader  of  the  Tai-pings, 

157-158 

Yang  Chia  Kow,  called  by 
foreign  sailors  "Yankee 
Cow,"  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Yellow  River,  29 

Yang-tse   Kiang,   possible   Ti- 
betan source  of,  63 
new  islands  made  by,  28 

Yan  Kien,  a  Chinese  general 
sets  up  the  Sui  dynasty, 
117 

Yao,    type     of     an     unselfish 
monarch,  73 
astronomical  observations, 

76 
passes  by  son  in  naming 
his  successor,  73 

Yeh,  Viceroy,  and  the  Arrow 
War,  162 


n 


328 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 


Yellow  River,  source  of,  63 
forsakes  its  old  bed,  29 
"Yellow   ruler,    the,"  reputed 

inventor  of  letters  and 

the      cycle      of      sixty 

years,  72 
Yellow  Sea,  why  so  called,  28 
Yermak,  182 
Yu  and  Li,  two  bad  kings  of  the 

house  of  Chou,  88 
Yuen    or      Mongol     dynasty, 

131-134 
Yuen   Shi   Kai,   Viceroy,   pre- 
eminent in  the  work  of 
reform,    212 


Yungcheng,  succeeds  Kanghi 
and  reigns  fourteen 
years,  144 

Yungloh,  emperor  of  the  Ming 
dynast}^  136 
' '  Thesaurus  of , "    136 

Yiinkwei,  viceregal  district  of, 

^5.  52 
Yunnan,  province  of,  52,  53 

coal  measures  and  copper 
mines,  52 

hundred  tribes  of  abor- 
igines within  its  bor- 
ders, 52 

unhealthful  climate,  52 


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